Anti Microbial Resistance Profile Of Esc
ISSN : 0040 - 3589
THAI JOURNAL OF
AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL PROMOTING AGRICULTURAL
NOVEMBER 19-20, 2010
VOLUME 44 • NUMBER 5 • SPECIAL ISSUE 2011
PREFACE
The International Conference on Agriculture and Agro-Industry 2010 (ICAAI2010) under
the theme of “Food, Health and Trade” is the irst international conference organized by School
of Agro-Industry. It was held at Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai, Thailand on November
19-20, 2010. ICAAI2010 is aimed to create connections amongst scientists in the areas of
agriculture and agro-industry, hence the sustainable agriculture and agro-industry for the world.
Approximately 350 delegates from overseas and Thailand have attended the conference
with totally 184 abstracts submitted to be presented as oral and poster presentations. With those
fruitful discussions during the presentation, 84 full papers were selected by the conference
scientiic reviewers who come from various academic institutes from overseas and Thailand to
be published in the supplement issue of Thai Journal of Agricultural Science. Those papers cover
three categories (1) Food Science and Technology (2) Agricultural Science and Technology and (3)
Agribusiness Management regarding to the sessions in the ICAAI2010.
All in all, ICAAI2010 was very successful in engaging scientists from different ields to
share their ideas, to develop bridge between institute-to-institute from various parts and regions in
the world, and consequently fulill the original purposes of the conference.
Lastly, we would like to thank those people who have supported to make this ICAAI2010
achieved. We also would like to extend my thanks to Professor Dr. Irb Kheoruenromne who
provided generous support allowing this proceeding to be published in the supplement issue of
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science. This will be beneit to the ones who may interest those
indings presented in the ICAAI2010 for further applied in their research or practical works.
ICAAI 2010 Organizer
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science
Content
Volme 44
Number 5
Special Issue 2011
Agricultural Science and Technology
10
1. The Inluence of the Interaction between Jasmonates, Ethylene, and Polyamines on
Fruit Quality
S. Kondo and M. Kittikorn
11
2. Physiological and Phytochemical Changes in Cayenne Pepper
S. Srilaong and N. Kaewkhum
16
3. Application of Chitosan for Reducing Chemical Fertilizer Uses in Waxy Corn Growing
S. Boonlertnirun R. Suvannasara P. Promsomboon and K. Boonlertnirun
22
4. Photostability of Mango Seed Kernel Extract and Its Encapsulated Product
P. Maisuthisakul
29
5. Development of Artiicial Neural Network on Transparent Soap Base Containing
Sonneratia caseolaris Extract
S. Piriyaprasarth, G. Chansiri, T. Phaechamud, and S. Puttipipatkhachorn
35
6. Indented Longan Detection with Computer Vision-based Software in Consideration of
Roundness Value
P. Poonnoy
42
7. Antimicrobial Resistance Proile of Escherichia coli Isolates From Fattening Pigs in
Khon Kaen Province, Thailand
P. Sornplang, N. Na-ngam, and S. Angkititrakul
51
8. Improvement of Rheological and Functional Properties of Defatted Rice Bran Protein
Bioplastic by Kraft Lignin Addition
P. Rattanatham, T. Kunanopparat, and S. Siriwattanayotin
56
9. Mangiferin and Antioxidant Capacity from Mango (Mangifera indica L.) Leaves Extracts
P. Kitbumrungsart, O. Suntornwat, and K. Rayanil
62
10. Preliminary Investigation of Biodiesel Wastes Utilization in Bacterial Fermentation
C. Sinprasertchok, A. Thanapimmetha, M. Saisriyoot and P. Srinophakun
67
11. Identiication of Sugarcane Somaclones Derived from Callus Culture by SSR and RAPD
Markers Analysis
S. Thumjamras, S. Iamtham, R. Lersrutaiyotin and S. Prammanee
71
12. Potential of Six Plant Species for Food Processing Wastewater Treatment in Wetland
P. Sohsalam
77
13. Phosphorus Accumulation in Wetland for Food Processing Wastewater Treatment
P. Sohsalam and S. Klangkongsup
83
89
14. Identifying Parameters Inluencing Growth and Astaxanthin Production by
Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous Cultivated in Pineapple Juice Concentrate Base
Low Cost Medium
S. Abdullah, K. Poomputsa, P. Mekvichitsaeng, V. Ruanglek and S. Akeprathumchai
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science : Vol. 44 Iss.5 Spcl. Iss. 2011
15. Carotenoids Production from Red Yeasts Using Waste Glycerol as a Sole Carbon Source
A. Manowattana, C. Techapun, P. Seesuriyachan and T. Chaiyaso
5
95
16. Studying the Genomic Function of Rice β-glucosidase via RNA Interference
D.T.T. Tam and M. Ketudat-Cairns
101
17. Bioactivities of Carica papaya Latex Extract
C. Bandasak, S. Rawdkuen, P. Pintathong and P. Chaiwut
106
18. Extraction of Phenolic Antioxidants From Peels and Seeds of the Royal Project’s Fruits
T. Sroimori, S. Srisunton, S. Rawdkuen, P. Pintathong and P. Chaiwut
113
19. Antioxidant Capacity and Total Phenolic Content of Moringa oleifera Grown in
Chiang Mai, Thailand
W. Wangcharoen, and S. Gomolmanee
118
20. Expression Analysis of Na+/ H+ Exchanger and Monosaccharide Transporter Genes
in Rice Suspension Cells Under Salt Stress
K. Mahasal, A. Chaopaknam and B. Ngampanya
125
21. Determination of Relationships and Genetic Variation Among Amorphophallus sp.
From Northern Part of Thailand
O. Mekkerdchoo, P. Holford, G. Srzednicki, C. Prakitchaiwattana,
C. Borompichaichartkul and S. Wattananon
129
22. Process Optimization of Anhydrous Ethanol Production Using Vapor Permeation (VP)
and Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) Techniques
S. Pimkaew, S. Kanchanatawee, and A. Boontawan
137
144
23. Tangerine Quality Monitoring by Ethanol Concentration Measurement
S. Wongsila, W. Kumpoun, A. Gardchareon, D. Wongratanaphisan and S. Choopun
24. Screening for Physical Stability of Nanoemulsions Containing Plai Oil
by Box-Behnken Desig
S. Manchun, S. Piriyaprasarth, and P. Sriamornsak
148
25. Effect of Ozone on Oxidative Stress Defense Enzymes and Quality Changes
in Tangerine (Citrus reticulata Blanco cv. Sai Nam Pung) Fruit
P. Boonkorn, H. Gemma, S. Sugaya, S. Setha, J. Uthaibutra, and K. Whangchai
155
26. Effects of Prebiotics on Growth Performance and Pathogenic Inhibition in
Sex-Reversed Red Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus × Oreochromis mossambicus)
V. Plongbunjong, W. Phromkuntong, N. Suanyuk, B. Viriyapongsutee
and S. Wichienchot
162
27. Validation of Modiied QuEChERS Method for Simultaneous Determination of
Organophosphates and Carbamates in Mangosteens by LC-MS/MS
W. Meecharoen, N. Tayaputch, V. Pitiyont and N. Leepipatpiboon
168
28. Effect of Seed Development on Seed Quality of Physic Nut (Jatropha curcas Linn.)
175
S. Ngamprasitthi, S. Juntakool, I. Sooksatan, S. Sukprakarn and S. Techapinyawat
29. Reduction of Residual Chlorpyrifos on Harvested Bird Chillies
(Capsicum frutescens Linn.) Using Ultrasonication and Ozonation
S. Pengphol, J. Uthaibutra, O. A. Arquero, N. Nomura and K. Whangchai
182
6
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science : Vol. 44 Iss.5 Spcl. Iss. 2011
30. Antioxidant Activities of Curcumin-metal Complexes
A. Thakam and N. Saewan
188
31. Lactic Acid Bacteria from Thai Fermented Meat Products as Biological Control
Agents against Anthracnose Disease
Bussaman P., Sa-uth C. , Tonsao A., Sawangkeaw A., Rattanasena P.
194
32. Antimicrobial Activity of Agricultural By-products Extracts Against Vibrio spp.
S. Charoenrak, S. Boonprasop, P. Sutthirak, and N. Wongmongkol
200
33. Quality Attribute and Antioxidant Activity Changes of Jerusalem Artichoke Tubers
(Helianthus tuberosus L.) During Storage at Different Temperatures
T. Plangklang and R. Tangwongchai
204
34. Seed Soaking with Three Essential Oils from Herbal Plants for Controlling
Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. Causing Damping – off Disease in Tomato
R. Duamkhanmanee
213
35. Effect of Ozone and Vapor Phase Hydrogen Peroxide Fumigation on the Control
of Postharvest Diseases of Longan Fruit (Dimocarpus longan Lour.)
K. Whangchai, N. Nuanaon and J. Uthaibutra
219
36. Development of Shellac From Source Available in Thailand as an Alternative
Polymer for Postharvest Treatment
D. Panchapornpon, C. Limmatvapirat, J. Nunthanid, M. Luangtana-Anan
P. Sriamornsak, S. Puttipipatkhachorn and S. Limmatvapirat
224
37. Nanoemulsions Containing Volatile Oils as Novel Antimicrobial for Oral Health
Care Products
S. Pengon, C. Limmatvapirat, S. Limsirichaikul and S. Limmatvapirat
230
38. Effect of Bio-extract as Microbial Inoculum on Composting of Cassava Leaves and Stems 236
P. Feunganksorn, S. Akeprathumchai and S. Tripetchkul
39. Anti-aging Cosmetics from Schizophyllum commune Fries
P. A. Pirshahid, C. Phromtong, S. Laovitthayanggoon, Y. Khamphan,
T. Hemthanon, P. Chueboonmee, J. Eiamwat and V. Arunpairojana
242
40. Preparation and Characterization of Shellac/PVP Iodine Blend as Antimicrobial Film Patch
T. Thammachat, C. Limmatvapirat, S. Limsirichaikul and S. Limmatvapirat
247
41. Medium Optimization for Antimicrobial Compound Production by an Endophytic
Fungus of Stemona burkillii for Plant Pathogenic Control
T. Pairoj, N. Ratnarathorn, J. Anu-aun and T. Vichitsoonthonkul
252
42. Varietal Cross Heterosis of Thein Waxy Corn
K. Boonlertnirun, R. Suvannasara, and S. Boonlertnirun
256
43. Factors Affecting on the Enhancement of Mechanical Properties of Composite
Edible Film based on Shellac and Gelatin
S. Soradech, J. Nunthanid, P. Sriamornsak, S. Limmatvapirat
and M. Luangtana-anan
263
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science : Vol. 44 Iss.5 Spcl. Iss. 2011
7
44. Off-lavor in Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Reared in Cages and Earthen
Ponds in Northern Thailand
N. Whangchai, S. Wigraiboon, K. Shimizu, N. Iwami and T. Itayama
270
45. Effect of Germination on Antioxidative Property of Pigmented and
Non-Pigmented Rice
S. Jiapong, R. Singanusong, and S. Jiamyangyuen
277
46. Antioxidant and Anti-inlammatory Activities of Freshwater Macroalga,
Cladophora glomerata Kützing
D. Amornlerdpison, K. Mengumphan, S. Thumvijit and Y. Peerapornpisal
283
47. Packaging Development to Support Export Supply Chain of Mangosteen Fruit
S. Sugiyono and I.M Edris
292
Food Science and Technology
299
48. Effect of Drying Conditions on Isolavones and α-Glucosidase Inhibitory
Activity of Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill]
C. Niamnuy, M. Nachaisin and S. Devahastin
300
49. Stability and Rheological Properties of Fat-Reduced Mayonnaises Containing
Modiied Starches as Fat Replacer
K. Khantarat and S. Thaiudom
304
50. Mathematical Models for Electrical Conductivities of Fresh Juices, Concentrated
Juices and Purees undergoing Ohmic Heating
T. Tumpanuvatr and W. Jittanit
312
51. Contamination of Acrylamide in Thai-conventional Foods From
Nong Mon Market, Chonburi
P. Komthong, O. Suriyaphan, and J. Charoenpanich
319
52. Antimicrobial Activities of the Edible Bird’s Nest Extracts Against
Food-borne Pathogens
W. Saengkrajang, N. Matan, and N. Matan
326
53. Evaluation of Oxidative Stability and Some Quality Characteristics of Chinese-Style
Sausage as Affected by the Addition of Roselle Extract and Different Sweeteners
T. Parinyapatthanaboot and P. Pinsirodom
331
54. Rapid and Highly Sensitive Analysis of Ethoxyquin Residues in Shrimp Using
Ultra High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry
S. Chikakul and N. Leepipatpiboon
341
55. Changes in Cooking Behavior of Organic and Inorganic Phatthalung
Sungyod Rice During Ageing
I. Keawpeng and M. Meenune
348
56. Extraction of Collagen from Hen Eggshell Membrane by Using Organic Acids
W. Ponkham, K. Limroongreungrat and A. Sangnark
354
57. Farinograph and Extensograph Properties of Frozen Dough Added With Psyllium
Husk Powder or Locust Bean Gums
S.Y Sim, A.A.N Aziah, T.T Teng, L.H Cheng
361
8
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science : Vol. 44 Iss.5 Spcl. Iss. 2011
58. Extraction and Characterization of Acid-soluble Collagen from Skin of Striped
Catish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus)
W. Wongwien, N. Srichan, S. Rawdkuen and N. Thitipramote
369
59. Antioxidant Activity of Plant by-Products (Pink Guava Leaves and Seeds) and
Their Application in Cookies
W. Z.Wan Nur Zahidah, A. Noriham and M.N. Zainon.
374
60. Infrared and Hot Air Drying of Mullet Fish: Drying Kinetics, Qualities and
Energy Consumption
Y. Tirawanichakul, S. Kaseng and S. Tirawanichakul
384
61. One and Two-Stage Drying of Shrimp using Hot Air and Infrared:
Quality Aspect and Energy Consumption
S. Tirawanichakul and Y. Tirawanichakul
391
62. Development of a Composite Tubular Membrane for Separation of AcetoneButanol-Ethanol (ABE) from Fermentation Broth by using Pervaporation Technique
W. Inthavee, S. Kanchanatawee and A. Boontawan
400
63. Effect of High-Pressure Microluidization on the Structure and Properties of
Waxy Rice Starch
K. Kasemwong, K. Meejaiyen, S. Srisiri and T. Itthisoponkul
408
64. Determination of Multiclass Pesticides in Onion Using Gas Chromatography with
Tandem Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS/MS)
T. Semathong and N. Leepipatpiboon
415
65. Effect of Nutrients in Trypticase Soy Agar on Growth Kineticsof Salmonella spp.
under Micro-Cultivation
W. Sangadkit, W. Saeaung, A. Boonyaprapasorn and A. Thipayarat
422
66. Assessing Awareness on Food Quality and Safety among Food Small and
Medium-Size Enterprises in Thailand
V. Suwanpidokkul and C. Waisarayutt
430
67. Use of Viscozyme L for Pre-treatment of Coconut Prior to Extraction by Screw Press
N. Krasaechol, S. Chinnasarn, T. Itthisoponkul and W. Yuenyongputtakal
440
68. Spoilage Bacteria Changes During Storage of Oyster (Crassostrea belcheri) in Ice-bath
S. Manatawee, N. Boonprasop, S. Boonprasop and P. Sutthirak
443
69. Water Sorption Isotherm and Thermo-Physical Properties for the Analysis of Natural
Rubber Drying
J. Tasara, S. Tirawanichakul and Y. Tirawanichakul
447
70. Fast and Less Thermal Degradation Protocol for Chromocult® Coliform Agar (CCA)
Preparation to Detect E. coli
P. Supanivatin, J. Khueankhancharoen, W. Saeung and A. Thipayarat
459
71. Microbiological Quality of Fresh Cockle (Anadara granosa) During Storage
at Room Temperature
P. Sutthirak and S. Boonprasop
466
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science : Vol. 44 Iss.5 Spcl. Iss. 2011
9
72. Cloning of Beta-Galactosidase Gene from Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp.
bulgaricus TISTR 892 and Expression in Escherichia coli
W. Srila, B. Ngampanya and P. Jaturapiree
471
73. Chemical Compositions of Eggs from Chicken, Quail and Snail-Eating Turtle
T. Tunsaringkarn, W. Siriwong and W. Tungjaroenchai
478
74. Crude Malva Nut Gum Affects Pasting and Textural Properties of Wheat Flour in
the Presence or Absence of Sodium Chloride
Y. Phimolsiripol, U. Siripatrawan and C. J. K. Henry
487
75. Puriication and Characterization of Microbial Transglutaminase from
Enterobacter sp. C2361
C. Bourneow, S. Benjakul and A. H-Kittikun
496
76. Effect of Adding Ling-zhi (Ganoderma lucidum) on Oxidative Stability,
Textural and Sensory Properties of Smoked Fish Sausage
W. Wannasupchue, S. Siriamornpun, K. Huaisan, J. Huaisan, and N. Meeso
505
77. Study on Preparation and Quality of Tomato Crispy Crackers
N. Panyoyai, S. Sanjai and P. Mungkan
513
78. Effect of the Physical Properties on Consumer Preference of Nuggets
P. Nantapatavee, A. Jangchud, K. Jangchud, J. Lin and T. Harnsilawat
519
79. Simple Fed–Batch Technique for the Production of Recombinant Enterokinase
Light Chain By Pichia pastoris
N. T. T. Dung, M. Ketudat-Cairns, and A. Boontawan
526
80. Structure Characterization and Molecular Docking Studies of α-Amylase Family-13
Glycosyl Hydrolases from Lactobacillus plantarum Complexed with Maltoheptaose:
a Novel Feature of α-Amylase Catalytic Mechanism
W. Bomrungnok, N. Khunajakr, A. Wongwichan, T. Dussadee,
R. Saiprajong and S. Pinitglang
534
81. Origin of Proteolytic Enzymes Involved in Production of Malaysian Fish Sauce, Budu
N. Y. Fen, A. T. Sali, R. Ahmad, L. M. Tze and W. N. W. Abdullah
542
82. Simple Determination of Ochratoxin A in Rice by Ultra Performance Liquid
Chromatography Coupled with Mass-Spectrometry
K. Sanguankaew and N. Leepipatpiboon
548
Agribusiness and Management
555
83. A Comparative Study of Rice Production and Trade Dynamics between
Thailand and Vietnam
N. L. Bach and N. Hempattarasuwan
556
84. Thai Consumer Willingness to Pay for Genetically Modiied Rice
W. Udomroekchai and Y. Chiaravutthi
563
List of ICAAI2010 Committee
570
Agricultural Science and Technology
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science 2011, 44(5) : 11-15
www.thaiagj.org
The Influence of the Interaction between Jasmonates, Ethylene, and
Polyamines on Fruit Quality
S. Kondo* and M. Kittikorn
Graduate School of Horticulture, Chiba University, Japan
*
Corresponding author. E-mail: s-kondo@faculty.chiba-u.jp
Abstract
Jasmonates (jasmonic acid and methyl jasmonate) could regulate ethylene
biosynthesis. The expression of the ACC synthase (ACS) 1 and ACC oxidase (ACO) 1
genes increased in pears (Pyrus communis L.) treated by n-propyl dihydrojasmonate
(PDJ) at the preclimacteric stage. However, the accumulations of ACS1 mRNA
decreased in the fruit treated by PDJ at the climacteric stage. Jasmonate treatment also
influenced aroma volatiles (alcohols and esters) and anthocyanin formation as well as
ethylene in apples (Malus domestica Borkh.). Jasmonates stimulated anthocyanin
accumulation in the skin related to ethylene action. The PDJ or polyamine treatment
decreased low-temperature damages such as splitting in apple fruit. The EC50 values of
DPPH radial-scavenging activity in PDJ-treated or polyamine-treated fruit after a lowtemperature treatment were lower than in the untreated control.
Keywords: aroma volatile, ethylene, environmental stress, jasmonic acid, polyamine
Introduction
Phytohormones have a correlation each
other. For example, 2, 4-DP application
before
harvest
increased
ethylene
production in fruit and promoted fruit
ripening (Kondo and Hayata, 1995; Kondo
et al., 2006). Auxin influences 1Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC)
synthase in the ethylene pathway (Ishiki
et al., 2000). In tomatoes, ACC synthase
cDNAs for ACS1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8
have been isolated (Sato and Mizuno,
2003). The levels of the expression of their
mRNAs differed with factors such as
wounding and flooding. In pears, PcACS1
and ACC oxidase PcACO1 mRNA
accumulations were observed in rewarmed
fruit after low temperature treatment
(Lelievre et al., 1997). These facts imply
that MdACS1 and MdACO1 may be
related to the fruit ripening. But the ACS
genes of messenger RNA (mRNA)
increased by the auxin application differed
among fruits (Ishiki et al., 2000). In this
report, the interaction between jasmonates,
ethylene, and polyamine on fruit quality is
discussed.
The Effects of Jasmonates and Ethylene
on Aroma Volatile Compounds and
Antioxidant Activity in Fruit
Aroma
volatiles
are
primarily
synthesized in the skin of fruit (Knee and
Hatfield, 1981). The volatile compound
production of apples is affected by various
other substances. For instance, 1-MCP,
which blocks ethylene receptors and
inhibits ethylene action, delays apple fruit
ripening (Blankenship and Dole, 2003).
The levels of volatile compounds such as
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science
S. Kondo and M. Kittikorn
(A)
15
MeJA
MCP
Ethephon
Ethephon+MeJA
10
group (mmol m-3)
alcohols, esters, and ketones increase
gradually toward ripening; however, their
concentrations were the lowest in 1-MCPtreated fruit (Kondo et al.,2005).
Furthermore, volatile compounds in 1MCP-treated fruit did not increase greatly.
This was true even at ripening. These
results suggest that 1-MCP inhibits the
production of volatile compounds.
Volatile compounds in apples, produced
by lipid and amino acid catabolism, are
primarily synthesized in the skin (Rudell
et al., 2002). Palmitic acid, stearic acid,
oleic acid, linoleic acid, and triacontane
were the predominant lipids detected in
apple skin at harvest, but the levels of
melissic acid, montanic acid, and
heptacosan were greater in immature fruit
skin (Noro et al., 1985). Thus, the lateforming lipids may be associated with
aroma volatile synthesis during fruit
ripening.
Ranjan and Lewak (1995)
showed that the lipid catabolism enzyme
lipase is associated with aroma volatile
production.
In addition, 1-MCP’s influence on the
enzyme activity in the lipid catabolism
pathway is well-known. This effect may
be difficult to recover from due to its
ethylene inhibition properties, through
suppression of enzyme activity. Aroma
volatiles in mangoes increased with the
application of jasmonates (Lalel et al.,
2003). However, Kondo et al. (2005)
demonstrated that the effect of jasmonates
on aroma volatile production was
dependent on the developmental stage of
the fruit. Jasmonates may decrease volatile
compound production when applied at the
climacteric stage. In contrast, jasmonate
application at the pre-climacteric stage
may stimulate aroma volatile production,
as well as the relationship between
ethylene and aroma volatiles in alcohols
and esters (Fig. 1).
Alcohol
12
LSD0.05
5
0
0
7
14
21
28
21
28
(B)
15
10
LSD0.05
5
0
0
7
14
Days after storage
Figure 1 Effects of jasmonate application on total
alcohol production in apples.
A: Pre-climacteric, B: Climacteric
Furthermore, jasmonate application at
the pre-climacteric stage could increase
anthocyanin formation in apple skin
(Kondo et al., 2001). It is known that the
anthocyanin, which is a kind of
polyphenolics, is an effective antioxidant.
For instance, the hemolysis of red blood
cells was delayed in the buffer including
solution extracted from the skin of apples
compared to the only buffer (Fig. 2).
Ethylene is associated with anthocyanin
formation in apple skin (Kondo and
Hayata, 1995). In addition, jasmonates
could stimulate anthocyanin accumulation
in the skin related to ethylene action
because a combination of jasmontes and
AVG (an inhibitor of ACC synthase)
increased anthocyanin concentrations,
Vol. 44, No.5, Spcl. Iss. 2011
Jasmonates, ethylene, and polyamines
compared to the untreated control (Kondo
et al., 2001).
Fruit skin extract buffer
Buffer
Fruit skin extract buffer
Buffer
13
increased (Fig. 3). However, at the
climacteric stage in pears, the expression
of ACS1 and ethylene production was
decreased in PDJ-treated fruit (Fig. 4;
Kondo et al., 2007). These results suggest
that jasmonate application may regulate
ethylene synthesis of system 2 through the
action of ACS1.
Control
1ACS 1
0
3
Days after storage
6
9
0
PDJ
3
6
9
0
ACS 3
Figure 2 Effect of fruit skin extract on the
hemolysis of red blood cells induced by a peroxyl
radical generator (AAPH).
ACS 4
ACO 1
EtBr
The Effect of Jasmonates on Ethylene
Production in Fruit
The changes of jasmonates differed
between climacteric and non-climacteric
fruit (Kondo et al., 2000; Kondo and
Fukuda, 2001). Jasmonate concentrations
increased at the ripening stage in
climacteric fruit, but did not in nonclimacteric fruit. In addition, the
interactions between ethylene and
jasmonates have been also reported in fruit.
MeJA application at the pre-climacteric
stage increased ethylene production in
apples (Saniewski et al., 1988), but
production decreased when MeJA was
applied at the climacteric stage (Miszczak
et al., 1995).
PDJ application also influenced the
ACS activity, ACC concentration, and the
ACO activity at the pre-climacteric stage
(Kondo et al., 2007). In PDJ-treated fruit
at the pre-climacteric stage, an expression
of the ACS1 and ACO1 mRNA was
Figure 3 Northern blots from ‘La France’ pear skin
at the pre-climacteric stage.
Chilling injury is generally caused by
membrane damages based on cellular
dehydration
(Thomashow,
1999).
Furthermore, membrane damage is caused
by the freeze-induced production of
reactive oxygen (McKersie and Bowley
1998). The production of reactive oxygen
is induced by environmental factor such as
low temperature (Matsui and Li, 2003).
The treatments of PDJ or spermine
decreased low-temperature injuries such as
splitting and spotting in apple fruit
(Yoshikawa et al., 2007). The EC50 of
DPPH-radical scavenging activities in
PDJ-treated fruit at 5 days after the lowtemperature treatment was lower than in
the untreated control at 20 ºC and -2 ºC
(Fig. 5). It has been shown that
phytohormone influenced low-temperature
tolerance in rice cultivars.
S. Kondo and M. Kittikorn
14
Days after storage
Control
PDJ
6
9
0
3
1.2
6
9
0
ACS3
ACS4
ACO1
EtBr
EC50 (mg/ ml)
ACS
3
DPPH radical scavenging activity
0
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science
0.8
0.4
LSD 0.05
0
0
1
Control（20℃）
PDJ（-2℃）
Control（-2℃）
3
5
Days after treatment
Figure 4 Northern blots from ‘La France’ pear
Figure 5 EC50 values of DPPH-radical scavenging
skin at the climacteric stage. Effect of jasmonates
activity in apple fruit at -2ºC and 20ºC.
and polyamines on low temperature stress in the
fruit.
That is, an increase of ABA or putrescine
concentrations was observed in low
temperature-tolerant cultivars but not in
low-temperature sensitive cultivars when
they were put at -5 ºC (Lee at al., 1995).
Low temperatures below -2 ºC can induce
frost damage such as splitting of the fruit.
By applying PDJ or spermine, the rate of
fruit damage caused by low temperatures
was reduced from 14% to 10% (Yoshikawa
et al., 2007). This coincided with an
increase of endogenous ABA concentrations.
The result that ABA increased in PDJ- or
spermine-treated fruit suggests that these
treatments may be effective for increasing
low- temperature tolerance. When stored at
-2 ºC, the fruit’s endogenous JA
concentrations declined more slowly.
However, in Spm-treated fruit, the
concentration either showed significant
difference or decreased when compared to
untreated fruit at -2 ºC (Yoshikawa et al.,
2007). This result shows that polyamine
may reduce the increase of JA by increasing
the tolerance of the fruit to low temperature.
Therefore, the low-temperature tolerance
induced by the jasmonate application may
occur through polyamine.
Conclusions
The interactions between jasmonates
and ethylene could influence fruit quality,
although the effect differed with the stage
of fruit ripening. The changes in
physiological active substances including
jasmonates, ethylene, and polyamine
correlate with and environmental stress
and changes in genes. These genes were
also affected by both environmental
factors and phytohormones. Although
environmental conditions significantly
influence plant response, in many cases
reactions are caused by changes in
phytohormones. Plant reactions can be
regulated by exogenous treatments of
phytohormones, as well as regulation of
environmental conditions. During the
cultivation process of agricultural crops,
environmental stresses such as drought
and low temperatures induce plant
dormancy. This is a kind of self-defense
reaction of the plant to environmental
stress and simultaneously jasmonate or
ethylene levels increase dramatically.
References
Blankenship, S.M. and Dole, J.M. 2003. 1methylcyclopropene: a review. Postharvest Biol.
Vol. 44, No.5, Spcl. Iss. 2011
Jasmonates, ethylene, and polyamines
Technol. 28: 1-25.
Ishiki, Y., Oda, A., Yaegashi, Y., Orihara, Y., Arai,
T., Hirabayashi, T., Nakagawa, H. and Sato, T.
2000. Cloning of an auxin-responsive 1amonocyclopropane-1-carboxylate
synthase
gene (CMe-ACS 2) from melon and the
expression of ACS genes in etiolated melon
seedlings and melon fruits. Plant Sci. 159: 173181.
Knee, M. and Hatfield, S.G.S. 1981. The
mechanism of alcohols by apple fruit tissue. J.
Sci. Food Agr. 32: 593-600.
Kondo, S. and Fukuda, K. 2001. Changes of
jasmonates in grape berries and their possible
roles in fruit development. Scientia Hort. 91:
275-288.
Kondo, S. and Hayata, Y., 1995. Effects of AVG
and 2, 4-DP on preharvest drop and fruit
quality of ‘Tsugaru’ apples. J. Jpn. Soc. Hort.
Sci. 64: 275-281.
Kondo, S., Isuzugawa, K., Kobayashi, S. and
Mattheis, J. P. 2006. Aroma volatile emission
and expression of 1-aminocyclopropane-1carboxylate (ACC) synthase and ACC oxidase
genes in pears treated with 2, 4-DP.
Postharvest Biol. Technol. 41: 22-31.
Kondo, S., Setha, S., Rudell, D.R., Buchanan, D.A.
and Mattheis, J.P. 2005. Aroma volatile
biosynthesis in apples affected by 1-MCP and
methyl jasmonate. Postharvest Biol. Technol.
36: 61-68.
Kondo, S., Tomiyama, A. and Seto, H. 2000.
Changes of endogenous jasmonic acid and
methyl jasmonate in apples and sweet
cherries during fruit development. J. Amer.
Soc. Hort. Sci. 125: 282-287.
Kondo, S., Tsukada, N., Niimi, Y. and Seto, H.
2001. Interactions between jasmonates and
abscisic acid in apple fruit, and stimulative
effect of jasmonates on anthocyanin
accumulation. J. Jpn. Soc. Hort. Sci. 70: 546552.
Kondo, S., Yamada, H. and Setha, S. 2007. Effect
of jasmonates differed at fruit ripening stages
on
1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate
(ACC) synthase and ACC oxidase gene
expression in pears. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci.
132: 120-125.
Lalel, H.J.D., Singh, Z. and Tan, S.C. 2003. The
role of methyl jasmonate in mango ripening
and biosynthesis of aroma volatile
compounds. J. Hort. Sci. Biotech. 78: 470484.
Lee, T.M., Lur, H.S. and Chu, C. 1995. Abscisic
acid and putrescine accumulation in chillingtolerant rice cultivars. Crop Sci. 35: 502-508.
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Nam, Y. W., Pech, J. C. and Latche, A. 1997.
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ethylene biosynthetic genes in PasseCrassane pear (Pyrus communis L.) fruits.
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McKersie, B.D. and Bowley, S. R. 1998. Active
oxygen and freezing tolerance in transgenic
plants. pp. 203-214. In Li P.H. and Chen,
T.H.H. eds., Plant Cold Hardness. Molecular
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Plenum Press, New York.
Matsui, S. and Li, J. 2003. Environmental stress for
crops and their antioxidative mechanisms.
Regul. Plant Growth Dev. 38: 118-124.
Miszczak, A., E. Lange, M. Saniewski, and J.
Czapski. 1995. The effect of methyl
jasmonate on ethylene production and CO2
evolution in Jonagold apples. Acta Agrob.
(Agrobotany) 48:121-128.
Noro, S., Kudo, N. and Kitsuwa, T. 1985. Changes
of lipids of ‘Jonagold’ apple peel in the
harvest time. J. Jpn. Soc. Hort. Sci. 54. 116120.
Ranjan, R. and Lewak, S. 1995. Interaction of
jasmonic acid and abscisic acid in the control
of lipases and proteases in germinating apple
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Rudell, D.R., Mattinson, D.S., Mattheis, J.P.,
Wyllie, S.G. and Fellman, J.K. 2002.
Investigations of aroma volatile biosynthesis
under anoxic conditions and in different
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(Malus domestica Borkh.). J. Agr. Food
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Saniewski, M., J. Nowacki, E. Lange, and J.
Czapski. 1988. The effect of methyl
jasmonate on anthocyanin accumulation,
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199-206
This paper was originally presented at the International Conference on Agricalture and Agro-Industry
2010 (ICAA2010), November 19-20, 2010 Mae Fah
Luang University, Chiang Rai, Thailand
www.thaiagj.org
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science 2011, 44(5) : 16-21
Physiological and Phytochemical Changes in Cayenne Pepper
V. Srilaong1,2* and N. Kaewkhum1
1
Postharvest Technology Program, School of Bioresources and Technology
King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Bangkok 10140 Thailand
2
Postharvest Technology Innovation Center
*Corresponding author. E-mail: varit.sri@kmutt.ac.th
Abstract
Cayenne pepper (Capsicum annuum Linn. Var acuminatum Fingerh) is widely
consume in Thailand, however information about its phytochemical components is still
limited. Thus, this research aimed to study the changes in physiological and
phytochemical components in two cultivars of cayenne pepper during the postharvest
period. Green and red cayenne peppers were harvested from a commercial orchard in
the central part of Thailand. The peppers were kept at 4oC for 30 days and samples were
withdrawn for analysis every 5 days. It was found that red cayenne pepper had a higher
antioxidant activity (DPPH radical scavenging activity) than green cayenne pepper. This
was concomittant with a higher abundance of total phenolic compounds, ascorbic acid
and β-carotene contents in green cayenne pepper compared with the red one.
Respiration and ethylene production rates of green cayenne pepper were higher than that
of the red cultivar. The content of total phenolic compounds and β-carotene in both
green and red cayenne peppers decreased after day 20 of storage, while ascorbic acid
content slightly increased. Based on the antioxident contents, a consumption of red
cayenne pepper would appear to provide a greater health benefit than consumption of
the green cultivar.
Keywords: antioxidant activity, ascorbic acid, β-carotene, Cayenne pepper
Introduction
Nowadays, consumers tend to eat
more fresh fruit and vegetables than
previously, and this is linked with a belief
that fresh fruit and vegetables are
enriched with antioxidative compounds
which can eliminate or scavenge the free
radical in our bodies. Many fruit and
vegetables produced in tropical regions
are rich in plant pigments which have free
radical scavenging properties and act as
electron donors to unpaired electrons of
reactive oxygen species. Chili is widely
consumed around the world. They are
many common species of chili peppers
such as Capsicum annuum, Capsicum
frutescens, Capsicum chinense, Capsicum
pubescens and Capsicum baccatum.
However, chilis are commonly classified
into three groups; bell peppers, sweet
peppers, and hot peppers. There are only
a few commonly used species, most
especially Capsicum annuum which
includes bell peppers, cayenne, jalapeños,
and the chiltepin, and Capsicum
frutescens which includes the chiles de
árbol, malagueta, tabasco and Thai
Vol. 44, No.5, Spcl. Iss. 2011
Physiological and phytochemical
changes in Cayenne pepper
peppers. Previous reports found that chili
contains high amounts of vitamin C and
carotene (provitamin A). In addition, it is
a good source of vitamin B6 and is very
high in potassium, magnesium, and iron.
Moreover, chilis are rich in phenolic
compounds which accumulate in the form
of pigments such as anthocyanin and
flavonoids. The bioactive compounds in
chili are believed to promote a healthy
human body by dilating the blood vessels,
cleansing the mucus lining and lowering
blood cholesterol. Research in humans
found that, with the intake of capsaicin (a
hot compound in chili), the LDL or bad
cholesterol actually resisted oxidation for
a longer period. This reduced the risks of
heart attacks and strokes.
In Thailand, Cayenne pepper is a
widely used species of hot chili. Most of
the research in the past has focused on the
advantages of red hot chili. However, a
few studies have deal with the nutritional
and postharvest research of Cayenne
pepper. Thus the objective of this
research was to study changes in the
physiology and phytochemicals of
Cayenne pepper during the postharvest
period.
Materials and Methods
Plant Material Preparation
Red and green Cayenne peppers
(Capsicum annuum Linn. var acuminatum
Fingerh) were harvested at commercial
maturity from an orchard in Nontaburi
Province, Thailand. The fruit were
transported to the Postharvest Technology
laboratory at King Mongkut’s University
of Technology Thonburi within 3 hours
after harvesting and then were selected for
uniformity of maturity, color and size, and
also freedom from any defects and
diseases. The selected red and green
Cayenne peppers were cleaned with
running tap water and left to dry under
ambient condition for 30 minutes after
which the fruit were stored separately (red
and green) in plastic basket covered with a
polyethylene bag at 4oC (90-95% RH).
Samples of red and green Cayenne
peppers were taken every 5 days for
physiological and phytochemical analysis
during the storage period of 30 days.
Respiration and ethylene production rates
were monitored and total phenol content,
total ascorbic acid content, β-carotene
content and DPPH radical scavenging
activities were measured
Respiration and Ethylene Production
The rate of ethylene production was
measured by gas chromatography, using a
flame ionization detector (FID) equipped
with an 80/100-mesh Pora pack-Q column
with nitrogen as the carrier gas. The
Cayenne peppers were kept in plastic
chambers and incubated at 4oC for 3 h
after which a gas sample (1 mL) was taken
with a syringe. Respiration rates were also
determined by gas chromatography using
a 80/100-mesh Pora pack-Q column and a
thermal conductivity detector (CHROMATOPAC C-R 8A, SHIMADSU Co.,
Kyoto, Japan).
17
18
V. Srilaong and N. Kaewkhum
Total Phenol Content
Total soluble phenolic compounds
were measured using the method of
Singleton and Rossi (1965). Extracts
were separately prepared from the top
(around the calyx), the middle, and the
bottom part of the fruit with 3
replications. Two grams of fruit sample
were homogenized with 20mL of 80%
ethanol for 1 min. The extract was then
filtered and centrifuged at 10,000×g for
15min.
One
millilitre
of
the
supernatant was mixed with 1mL of
Folin Ciocalteu reagent (Sigma–
Aldrich, Buchs, Switzerland) and
10mL of 7% sodium carbonate. The
volume was increased to 25 mL with
distilled water and left to settle for 1 h.
The total phenolic content was then
read at 750nm using a spectrophotometer (UV-1601; Shimadsu Co.,
Kyoto, Japan). A standard curve of
gallic acid was used to quantify the
total phenolic content.
Total Ascorbic Acid Content
The total ascorbic acid content was
measured according to the method of
Hashimoto and Yamafuji (2001). Five
millilitres of fruit juice were mixed
with 20mL of cold 5% metaphosphoric
acid, and filtered through Whatman
No. 1 paper. A 0.4mL aliquot of the
filtrate was mixed with 0.2 mL of 2%
di-indophenol. The mixture was then
added to 0.4mL of 2% thiourea and
0.2mL of 1% dinitrophenol hydrazine,
and incubated at 37oC for 3 h. After
incubation, 1 mL of 85% sulphuric
acid was added, and the resultant
solution was incubated again at room
temperature for 30 min. Total ascorbic
acid was determined by measuring
absorbance at 540 nm using a
spectrophotometer
(UV-1601;
Shimadsu Co., Kyoto, Japan). The
concentration of total ascorbic acid was
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science
expressed in mg/100g on a fresh
weight basis.
β-Carotene Content
Each 2g sample of tissue was placed
in
50 ml of solution containing
hexane:acetone:ethanol (2:1:1) and
then homogenized and mixed ona
magnetic stirrer for 10 min. To this
homogenate was added 7.5 ml of
distilled water and the solution again
mixed on a magnetic stirrer for 5 min.
The sample was allowed to form two
phases with the upper phase being the
hexane phase (25 ml) and the lower
being a mixture of acetone and ethanol.
The upper phase was collected and its
absorbance was determined at 450 nm
according to the method of Scott
(2005).
DPPH Radical Scavenging Activity
The DPPH assay was carried out
according to the method of BrandWilliams et al. (1995) with some
modifications. The stock solution was
prepared by dissolving 24 mg DPPH
with 100 mL methanol and this stock
solution was stored at 20oC until
needed. A working solution was
obtained by mixing 10 mL of the stock
solution with 45 mL methanol to obtain
an absorbance of 1.1±0.02 units at 515
nm using the spectrophotometer. Fruit
extracts (150 µL) were allowed to react
with 2850 µL of the DPPH solution for
24 h in the dark. The absorbance was
then taken at 515 nm. The standard
curve was linear between 25 and 800
µM Trolox. Results are expressed in
µM TE/g fresh mass. Additional
dilution was needed if the DPPH value
measured was over the linear range of
the standard curve.
Vol. 44, No.5, Spcl. Iss. 2011
Physiological and phytochemical
changes in Cayenne pepper
Results and Discussion
The respiration rates of both the red
and green cayenne peppers showed the
same pattern throughout the storage
time of 30 days (Figure 1A). A peak of
respiration was observed on day 15 in
both pepper cultivars. Green cayenne
pepper had a significantly higher rate
of respiration than the red cultivar. The
ethylene production rates of red and
green cayenne peppers showed the
same trend of change during storage.
The maximum peak of ethylene
evolution in green pepper was on day
10. In the red pepper, the ethylene
production rate was lower and the peak
was shifted to day 15 (Figure 1B).
These results indicate that ethylene
production rose after the initial day of
storage whereas the respiration rate
was changed little during the first ten
days of storage. The later increase in
respiration may have been induced by
the ethylene production. Green cayenne
pepper had higher respiration and
ethylene production rates than the red
cultivar. This may imply that green
cultivar was an immature fruit while
the red cultivar was a more mature
fruit. Normally, the immature fruit
have higher respiration and ethylene
production rates than the mature fruit
(Tadesse et al., 1998).
Total phenolic content in both red
and green cayenne peppers was slightly
decreased during 20 days of storage
and then sharply declined through to
the end of storage (Figure 2). The total
phenolic content in the red pepper was
higher than in the green cultivar. This
may be due to the red pepper
containing anthocyanin as its major
pigment and anthocyanin is one class
of flavonoid compounds, which are
widely distributed plant polyphenols
thus the total phenolic content in red
pepper was greater compared to the
green one. This result was in contrast
with the finding of Zhang and
Hamauzu (2003) who determined that
the phenolic content in green bell
pepper was higher than in the red and
yellow cultivars. The differences
between the levels of phenolic
compounds in the peppers in our study
compared with the levels found by
Zhang and Hamauzu (2003) may be
due to the different cultivars of pepper
examined and may also be influenced
by differences in the environments in
which peppers were grown, with the
bell peppers being grown in a cooler
climate than that of cayenne pepper.
The β-carotene content in the green
pepper was in the range of 7-11 mg
gFW-1 while in the red pepper, the
content was some two-fold higher, in
the range of 15-30 mg gFW-1 (Figure
3). The content in the red pepper
increased after day 10 to a peak at
about day 20 then decreased to the end
of storage. In contrast the content in
green cayenne pepper did not change
significantly across the period of
storage. A similar observation was
reported by Zhang and Hamauzu
(2003) who reported that the
carotenoid content in red and yellow
bell peppers were greater than in green
cultivar due to the carotenoid
pigments.
Total ascorbic acid contents in both
the red and green cayenne peppers
changed little over the first 20 days of
storage (Figure 4) but increased sharply
to a peak at day 25 in the red pepper and
remained higher than in the green pepper
until the end of storage. In contrast, the
content in the green pepper declined
slowly from day 20 until the end of the
storage period. As mentioned above, the
green and red cayenne pepper were at
different maturity stages, thus the red
mature fruit had higher ascorbic acid
contents than the less mature green
19
V. Srilaong and N. Kaewkhum
20
pepper. Zhang and Hamauzu (2003) also
found that red bell pepper contained
higher ascorbic acid than the green
cultivar.
A
B
Figure 1 Respiration (A) and ethylene
production rate (B) of red and green cayenne
peppers during storage at 4oC. The vertical bars
indicate standard errors (n=3).
Figure 2 Changes in total phenolic contents in red
and green cayenne peppers during storage at 4oC.
The vertical bars indicate standard errors (n=3).
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science
Antioxidant activity in this research was
determined as the DPPH radical
scavenging activity (Figure 5). There
was little difference in DPPH radical
scavenging activity between the two
cultivars during the first 20 days of
storage. However, after day 20 the
DPPH radical scavenging activity in the
red pepper increased to a higher level
than in the green cultivar and was about
2-fold higher than in the green pepper by
the end of study. The higher
antioxidative activity in red pepper was
related with a higher content of ascorbic
acid, total phenolic compound and βcarotene.
Figure 4 Total ascorbic acid content in red and
green cayenne peppers during storage at 4oC. The
vertical bars indicate standard errors (n=3).
Figure 5 DPPH radical scavenging activity in
red and green cayenne peppers during storage at
4oC. The vertical bars indicate standard errors
(n=3).
Conclusions
Figure 3 Changes in β-carotene contents in red
and green cayenne peppers during storage at 4oC.
The vertical bars indicate standard errors (n=3).
Red cayenne pepper has higher
antioxidant activity (DPPH radical
scavenging activity) than green cayenne
pepper due to its higher levels of total
phenolic compounds, ascorbic acid and
β-carotene. This higher antioxidant
Vol. 44, No.5, Spcl. Iss. 2011
Physiological and phytochemical
changes in Cayenne pepper
activity would suggest that consumption
of the red cayenne pepper might gain
more beneficial to human health than
consumption of the green pepper.
References
Brand-Williams, W. M.E. Cuvelier and C.
Berset. 1995. Use of free radical method to
evaluate antioxidant activity. Lebensmittel
Wissenschaft und Technologie. 28 : 25-30.
Hashimoto, S. and K. Yamafuji. 2001. The
determination of diketo-L- gulonic acid,
dehydro-L- ascorbic acid, and l- ascorbic acid
in the same tissue extract by 2, 4dinitrophenol hydrazine method. J. Biol.
Chem. 174: 201-208.
Scott, J. 2005. Detection and measurement of
caroteniods by UV/VIS spectrophotometry.
In Hand Book of Food Analytical
Chemistry. pp. 81-90.
21
Singleton, V.L. and J.L. Rossi. 1965.
Colorimetry of total phenolics with
phosphomolybdic-phosphotungstic
acid
reagents. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 16: 144–158.
Tadesse, T., Nichols, M.A. and Hewett, E.W.
1998. Ripening of attached and detached
sweet pepper fruit cv. “Domino’. Acta Hort.
464:503-503
Wills, R., B. McGlasson, D. Graham, and D.
Joyce. 1998. Postharvest: An Introduction to
physiology & handling of fruit, vegetables &
ornamentals. NUSW press, Australia.
Zhang, D. and Y. Hamauzu. 2003. Phenolic
compounds, ascorbic acid, carotenoids and
antioxidant properties of green, red and yellow
bell peppers. Food, Agriculture & Environment.
2: 22-27
This paper was originally presented at the International Conference on Agricalture and Agro-Industry
2010 (ICAA2010), November 19-20, 2010 Mae Fah
Luang University, Chiang Rai, Thailand
www.thaiagj.org
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science 2011, 44(5) : 22-28
Application of Chitosan for Reducing Chemical Fertilizer Uses
in Waxy Corn Growing
S. Boonlertnirun1 R. Suvannasara 1 P. Promsomboon2
and K. Boonlertnirun1
1
Faculty of Agricultural Technology and Agro-industry, Rajamangala University of
Technology Suvarnabhumi, Pranakhon Sri Ayuttaya province 13000, THAILAND
2
Faculty of Agriculture and Natural resource, Rajamangala University of Technology
Tawan-ok, Sri Racha, Chon Buri province, 20110.
Corresponding author: E-mail: kittihuntra@hotmail.com
Abstract
Chitosan is abundant biopolymer found in nature. It has been used to stimulate plant
growth and enhance crop yields. The objectives were to reduce chemical fertilizer uses in
waxy corn growing and also conserve soil physical properties and environment. This
experiment was conducted using a split plot in Randomized Complete Block Design with
two main plots and four subplots and replicated four times. Main plot was chitosan
application and control (no chitosan) and subplot was four rates (50+50, 50+25, 25+50 and
25+25 kg/rai) of chemical fertilizer mixed between formula 16-20-0 and 46-0-0. Field
experiment was carried out at field crop plot of Plant Science section, Rajamangala
University of Technology Suvarnabhumi, Pranakhon Sri Ayuttaya province during February
to April 2010. The results showed that chitosan application significantly increased (p
THAI JOURNAL OF
AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL PROMOTING AGRICULTURAL
NOVEMBER 19-20, 2010
VOLUME 44 • NUMBER 5 • SPECIAL ISSUE 2011
PREFACE
The International Conference on Agriculture and Agro-Industry 2010 (ICAAI2010) under
the theme of “Food, Health and Trade” is the irst international conference organized by School
of Agro-Industry. It was held at Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai, Thailand on November
19-20, 2010. ICAAI2010 is aimed to create connections amongst scientists in the areas of
agriculture and agro-industry, hence the sustainable agriculture and agro-industry for the world.
Approximately 350 delegates from overseas and Thailand have attended the conference
with totally 184 abstracts submitted to be presented as oral and poster presentations. With those
fruitful discussions during the presentation, 84 full papers were selected by the conference
scientiic reviewers who come from various academic institutes from overseas and Thailand to
be published in the supplement issue of Thai Journal of Agricultural Science. Those papers cover
three categories (1) Food Science and Technology (2) Agricultural Science and Technology and (3)
Agribusiness Management regarding to the sessions in the ICAAI2010.
All in all, ICAAI2010 was very successful in engaging scientists from different ields to
share their ideas, to develop bridge between institute-to-institute from various parts and regions in
the world, and consequently fulill the original purposes of the conference.
Lastly, we would like to thank those people who have supported to make this ICAAI2010
achieved. We also would like to extend my thanks to Professor Dr. Irb Kheoruenromne who
provided generous support allowing this proceeding to be published in the supplement issue of
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science. This will be beneit to the ones who may interest those
indings presented in the ICAAI2010 for further applied in their research or practical works.
ICAAI 2010 Organizer
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science
Content
Volme 44
Number 5
Special Issue 2011
Agricultural Science and Technology
10
1. The Inluence of the Interaction between Jasmonates, Ethylene, and Polyamines on
Fruit Quality
S. Kondo and M. Kittikorn
11
2. Physiological and Phytochemical Changes in Cayenne Pepper
S. Srilaong and N. Kaewkhum
16
3. Application of Chitosan for Reducing Chemical Fertilizer Uses in Waxy Corn Growing
S. Boonlertnirun R. Suvannasara P. Promsomboon and K. Boonlertnirun
22
4. Photostability of Mango Seed Kernel Extract and Its Encapsulated Product
P. Maisuthisakul
29
5. Development of Artiicial Neural Network on Transparent Soap Base Containing
Sonneratia caseolaris Extract
S. Piriyaprasarth, G. Chansiri, T. Phaechamud, and S. Puttipipatkhachorn
35
6. Indented Longan Detection with Computer Vision-based Software in Consideration of
Roundness Value
P. Poonnoy
42
7. Antimicrobial Resistance Proile of Escherichia coli Isolates From Fattening Pigs in
Khon Kaen Province, Thailand
P. Sornplang, N. Na-ngam, and S. Angkititrakul
51
8. Improvement of Rheological and Functional Properties of Defatted Rice Bran Protein
Bioplastic by Kraft Lignin Addition
P. Rattanatham, T. Kunanopparat, and S. Siriwattanayotin
56
9. Mangiferin and Antioxidant Capacity from Mango (Mangifera indica L.) Leaves Extracts
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62
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13. Phosphorus Accumulation in Wetland for Food Processing Wastewater Treatment
P. Sohsalam and S. Klangkongsup
83
89
14. Identifying Parameters Inluencing Growth and Astaxanthin Production by
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Low Cost Medium
S. Abdullah, K. Poomputsa, P. Mekvichitsaeng, V. Ruanglek and S. Akeprathumchai
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science : Vol. 44 Iss.5 Spcl. Iss. 2011
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A. Manowattana, C. Techapun, P. Seesuriyachan and T. Chaiyaso
5
95
16. Studying the Genomic Function of Rice β-glucosidase via RNA Interference
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137
144
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6
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science : Vol. 44 Iss.5 Spcl. Iss. 2011
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38. Effect of Bio-extract as Microbial Inoculum on Composting of Cassava Leaves and Stems 236
P. Feunganksorn, S. Akeprathumchai and S. Tripetchkul
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242
40. Preparation and Characterization of Shellac/PVP Iodine Blend as Antimicrobial Film Patch
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42. Varietal Cross Heterosis of Thein Waxy Corn
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263
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science : Vol. 44 Iss.5 Spcl. Iss. 2011
7
44. Off-lavor in Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Reared in Cages and Earthen
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N. Whangchai, S. Wigraiboon, K. Shimizu, N. Iwami and T. Itayama
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Food Science and Technology
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50. Mathematical Models for Electrical Conductivities of Fresh Juices, Concentrated
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53. Evaluation of Oxidative Stability and Some Quality Characteristics of Chinese-Style
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8
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science : Vol. 44 Iss.5 Spcl. Iss. 2011
58. Extraction and Characterization of Acid-soluble Collagen from Skin of Striped
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59. Antioxidant Activity of Plant by-Products (Pink Guava Leaves and Seeds) and
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384
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62. Development of a Composite Tubular Membrane for Separation of AcetoneButanol-Ethanol (ABE) from Fermentation Broth by using Pervaporation Technique
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64. Determination of Multiclass Pesticides in Onion Using Gas Chromatography with
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66. Assessing Awareness on Food Quality and Safety among Food Small and
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563
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Agricultural Science and Technology
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science 2011, 44(5) : 11-15
www.thaiagj.org
The Influence of the Interaction between Jasmonates, Ethylene, and
Polyamines on Fruit Quality
S. Kondo* and M. Kittikorn
Graduate School of Horticulture, Chiba University, Japan
*
Corresponding author. E-mail: s-kondo@faculty.chiba-u.jp
Abstract
Jasmonates (jasmonic acid and methyl jasmonate) could regulate ethylene
biosynthesis. The expression of the ACC synthase (ACS) 1 and ACC oxidase (ACO) 1
genes increased in pears (Pyrus communis L.) treated by n-propyl dihydrojasmonate
(PDJ) at the preclimacteric stage. However, the accumulations of ACS1 mRNA
decreased in the fruit treated by PDJ at the climacteric stage. Jasmonate treatment also
influenced aroma volatiles (alcohols and esters) and anthocyanin formation as well as
ethylene in apples (Malus domestica Borkh.). Jasmonates stimulated anthocyanin
accumulation in the skin related to ethylene action. The PDJ or polyamine treatment
decreased low-temperature damages such as splitting in apple fruit. The EC50 values of
DPPH radial-scavenging activity in PDJ-treated or polyamine-treated fruit after a lowtemperature treatment were lower than in the untreated control.
Keywords: aroma volatile, ethylene, environmental stress, jasmonic acid, polyamine
Introduction
Phytohormones have a correlation each
other. For example, 2, 4-DP application
before
harvest
increased
ethylene
production in fruit and promoted fruit
ripening (Kondo and Hayata, 1995; Kondo
et al., 2006). Auxin influences 1Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC)
synthase in the ethylene pathway (Ishiki
et al., 2000). In tomatoes, ACC synthase
cDNAs for ACS1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8
have been isolated (Sato and Mizuno,
2003). The levels of the expression of their
mRNAs differed with factors such as
wounding and flooding. In pears, PcACS1
and ACC oxidase PcACO1 mRNA
accumulations were observed in rewarmed
fruit after low temperature treatment
(Lelievre et al., 1997). These facts imply
that MdACS1 and MdACO1 may be
related to the fruit ripening. But the ACS
genes of messenger RNA (mRNA)
increased by the auxin application differed
among fruits (Ishiki et al., 2000). In this
report, the interaction between jasmonates,
ethylene, and polyamine on fruit quality is
discussed.
The Effects of Jasmonates and Ethylene
on Aroma Volatile Compounds and
Antioxidant Activity in Fruit
Aroma
volatiles
are
primarily
synthesized in the skin of fruit (Knee and
Hatfield, 1981). The volatile compound
production of apples is affected by various
other substances. For instance, 1-MCP,
which blocks ethylene receptors and
inhibits ethylene action, delays apple fruit
ripening (Blankenship and Dole, 2003).
The levels of volatile compounds such as
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science
S. Kondo and M. Kittikorn
(A)
15
MeJA
MCP
Ethephon
Ethephon+MeJA
10
group (mmol m-3)
alcohols, esters, and ketones increase
gradually toward ripening; however, their
concentrations were the lowest in 1-MCPtreated fruit (Kondo et al.,2005).
Furthermore, volatile compounds in 1MCP-treated fruit did not increase greatly.
This was true even at ripening. These
results suggest that 1-MCP inhibits the
production of volatile compounds.
Volatile compounds in apples, produced
by lipid and amino acid catabolism, are
primarily synthesized in the skin (Rudell
et al., 2002). Palmitic acid, stearic acid,
oleic acid, linoleic acid, and triacontane
were the predominant lipids detected in
apple skin at harvest, but the levels of
melissic acid, montanic acid, and
heptacosan were greater in immature fruit
skin (Noro et al., 1985). Thus, the lateforming lipids may be associated with
aroma volatile synthesis during fruit
ripening.
Ranjan and Lewak (1995)
showed that the lipid catabolism enzyme
lipase is associated with aroma volatile
production.
In addition, 1-MCP’s influence on the
enzyme activity in the lipid catabolism
pathway is well-known. This effect may
be difficult to recover from due to its
ethylene inhibition properties, through
suppression of enzyme activity. Aroma
volatiles in mangoes increased with the
application of jasmonates (Lalel et al.,
2003). However, Kondo et al. (2005)
demonstrated that the effect of jasmonates
on aroma volatile production was
dependent on the developmental stage of
the fruit. Jasmonates may decrease volatile
compound production when applied at the
climacteric stage. In contrast, jasmonate
application at the pre-climacteric stage
may stimulate aroma volatile production,
as well as the relationship between
ethylene and aroma volatiles in alcohols
and esters (Fig. 1).
Alcohol
12
LSD0.05
5
0
0
7
14
21
28
21
28
(B)
15
10
LSD0.05
5
0
0
7
14
Days after storage
Figure 1 Effects of jasmonate application on total
alcohol production in apples.
A: Pre-climacteric, B: Climacteric
Furthermore, jasmonate application at
the pre-climacteric stage could increase
anthocyanin formation in apple skin
(Kondo et al., 2001). It is known that the
anthocyanin, which is a kind of
polyphenolics, is an effective antioxidant.
For instance, the hemolysis of red blood
cells was delayed in the buffer including
solution extracted from the skin of apples
compared to the only buffer (Fig. 2).
Ethylene is associated with anthocyanin
formation in apple skin (Kondo and
Hayata, 1995). In addition, jasmonates
could stimulate anthocyanin accumulation
in the skin related to ethylene action
because a combination of jasmontes and
AVG (an inhibitor of ACC synthase)
increased anthocyanin concentrations,
Vol. 44, No.5, Spcl. Iss. 2011
Jasmonates, ethylene, and polyamines
compared to the untreated control (Kondo
et al., 2001).
Fruit skin extract buffer
Buffer
Fruit skin extract buffer
Buffer
13
increased (Fig. 3). However, at the
climacteric stage in pears, the expression
of ACS1 and ethylene production was
decreased in PDJ-treated fruit (Fig. 4;
Kondo et al., 2007). These results suggest
that jasmonate application may regulate
ethylene synthesis of system 2 through the
action of ACS1.
Control
1ACS 1
0
3
Days after storage
6
9
0
PDJ
3
6
9
0
ACS 3
Figure 2 Effect of fruit skin extract on the
hemolysis of red blood cells induced by a peroxyl
radical generator (AAPH).
ACS 4
ACO 1
EtBr
The Effect of Jasmonates on Ethylene
Production in Fruit
The changes of jasmonates differed
between climacteric and non-climacteric
fruit (Kondo et al., 2000; Kondo and
Fukuda, 2001). Jasmonate concentrations
increased at the ripening stage in
climacteric fruit, but did not in nonclimacteric fruit. In addition, the
interactions between ethylene and
jasmonates have been also reported in fruit.
MeJA application at the pre-climacteric
stage increased ethylene production in
apples (Saniewski et al., 1988), but
production decreased when MeJA was
applied at the climacteric stage (Miszczak
et al., 1995).
PDJ application also influenced the
ACS activity, ACC concentration, and the
ACO activity at the pre-climacteric stage
(Kondo et al., 2007). In PDJ-treated fruit
at the pre-climacteric stage, an expression
of the ACS1 and ACO1 mRNA was
Figure 3 Northern blots from ‘La France’ pear skin
at the pre-climacteric stage.
Chilling injury is generally caused by
membrane damages based on cellular
dehydration
(Thomashow,
1999).
Furthermore, membrane damage is caused
by the freeze-induced production of
reactive oxygen (McKersie and Bowley
1998). The production of reactive oxygen
is induced by environmental factor such as
low temperature (Matsui and Li, 2003).
The treatments of PDJ or spermine
decreased low-temperature injuries such as
splitting and spotting in apple fruit
(Yoshikawa et al., 2007). The EC50 of
DPPH-radical scavenging activities in
PDJ-treated fruit at 5 days after the lowtemperature treatment was lower than in
the untreated control at 20 ºC and -2 ºC
(Fig. 5). It has been shown that
phytohormone influenced low-temperature
tolerance in rice cultivars.
S. Kondo and M. Kittikorn
14
Days after storage
Control
PDJ
6
9
0
3
1.2
6
9
0
ACS3
ACS4
ACO1
EtBr
EC50 (mg/ ml)
ACS
3
DPPH radical scavenging activity
0
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science
0.8
0.4
LSD 0.05
0
0
1
Control（20℃）
PDJ（-2℃）
Control（-2℃）
3
5
Days after treatment
Figure 4 Northern blots from ‘La France’ pear
Figure 5 EC50 values of DPPH-radical scavenging
skin at the climacteric stage. Effect of jasmonates
activity in apple fruit at -2ºC and 20ºC.
and polyamines on low temperature stress in the
fruit.
That is, an increase of ABA or putrescine
concentrations was observed in low
temperature-tolerant cultivars but not in
low-temperature sensitive cultivars when
they were put at -5 ºC (Lee at al., 1995).
Low temperatures below -2 ºC can induce
frost damage such as splitting of the fruit.
By applying PDJ or spermine, the rate of
fruit damage caused by low temperatures
was reduced from 14% to 10% (Yoshikawa
et al., 2007). This coincided with an
increase of endogenous ABA concentrations.
The result that ABA increased in PDJ- or
spermine-treated fruit suggests that these
treatments may be effective for increasing
low- temperature tolerance. When stored at
-2 ºC, the fruit’s endogenous JA
concentrations declined more slowly.
However, in Spm-treated fruit, the
concentration either showed significant
difference or decreased when compared to
untreated fruit at -2 ºC (Yoshikawa et al.,
2007). This result shows that polyamine
may reduce the increase of JA by increasing
the tolerance of the fruit to low temperature.
Therefore, the low-temperature tolerance
induced by the jasmonate application may
occur through polyamine.
Conclusions
The interactions between jasmonates
and ethylene could influence fruit quality,
although the effect differed with the stage
of fruit ripening. The changes in
physiological active substances including
jasmonates, ethylene, and polyamine
correlate with and environmental stress
and changes in genes. These genes were
also affected by both environmental
factors and phytohormones. Although
environmental conditions significantly
influence plant response, in many cases
reactions are caused by changes in
phytohormones. Plant reactions can be
regulated by exogenous treatments of
phytohormones, as well as regulation of
environmental conditions. During the
cultivation process of agricultural crops,
environmental stresses such as drought
and low temperatures induce plant
dormancy. This is a kind of self-defense
reaction of the plant to environmental
stress and simultaneously jasmonate or
ethylene levels increase dramatically.
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This paper was originally presented at the International Conference on Agricalture and Agro-Industry
2010 (ICAA2010), November 19-20, 2010 Mae Fah
Luang University, Chiang Rai, Thailand
www.thaiagj.org
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science 2011, 44(5) : 16-21
Physiological and Phytochemical Changes in Cayenne Pepper
V. Srilaong1,2* and N. Kaewkhum1
1
Postharvest Technology Program, School of Bioresources and Technology
King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Bangkok 10140 Thailand
2
Postharvest Technology Innovation Center
*Corresponding author. E-mail: varit.sri@kmutt.ac.th
Abstract
Cayenne pepper (Capsicum annuum Linn. Var acuminatum Fingerh) is widely
consume in Thailand, however information about its phytochemical components is still
limited. Thus, this research aimed to study the changes in physiological and
phytochemical components in two cultivars of cayenne pepper during the postharvest
period. Green and red cayenne peppers were harvested from a commercial orchard in
the central part of Thailand. The peppers were kept at 4oC for 30 days and samples were
withdrawn for analysis every 5 days. It was found that red cayenne pepper had a higher
antioxidant activity (DPPH radical scavenging activity) than green cayenne pepper. This
was concomittant with a higher abundance of total phenolic compounds, ascorbic acid
and β-carotene contents in green cayenne pepper compared with the red one.
Respiration and ethylene production rates of green cayenne pepper were higher than that
of the red cultivar. The content of total phenolic compounds and β-carotene in both
green and red cayenne peppers decreased after day 20 of storage, while ascorbic acid
content slightly increased. Based on the antioxident contents, a consumption of red
cayenne pepper would appear to provide a greater health benefit than consumption of
the green cultivar.
Keywords: antioxidant activity, ascorbic acid, β-carotene, Cayenne pepper
Introduction
Nowadays, consumers tend to eat
more fresh fruit and vegetables than
previously, and this is linked with a belief
that fresh fruit and vegetables are
enriched with antioxidative compounds
which can eliminate or scavenge the free
radical in our bodies. Many fruit and
vegetables produced in tropical regions
are rich in plant pigments which have free
radical scavenging properties and act as
electron donors to unpaired electrons of
reactive oxygen species. Chili is widely
consumed around the world. They are
many common species of chili peppers
such as Capsicum annuum, Capsicum
frutescens, Capsicum chinense, Capsicum
pubescens and Capsicum baccatum.
However, chilis are commonly classified
into three groups; bell peppers, sweet
peppers, and hot peppers. There are only
a few commonly used species, most
especially Capsicum annuum which
includes bell peppers, cayenne, jalapeños,
and the chiltepin, and Capsicum
frutescens which includes the chiles de
árbol, malagueta, tabasco and Thai
Vol. 44, No.5, Spcl. Iss. 2011
Physiological and phytochemical
changes in Cayenne pepper
peppers. Previous reports found that chili
contains high amounts of vitamin C and
carotene (provitamin A). In addition, it is
a good source of vitamin B6 and is very
high in potassium, magnesium, and iron.
Moreover, chilis are rich in phenolic
compounds which accumulate in the form
of pigments such as anthocyanin and
flavonoids. The bioactive compounds in
chili are believed to promote a healthy
human body by dilating the blood vessels,
cleansing the mucus lining and lowering
blood cholesterol. Research in humans
found that, with the intake of capsaicin (a
hot compound in chili), the LDL or bad
cholesterol actually resisted oxidation for
a longer period. This reduced the risks of
heart attacks and strokes.
In Thailand, Cayenne pepper is a
widely used species of hot chili. Most of
the research in the past has focused on the
advantages of red hot chili. However, a
few studies have deal with the nutritional
and postharvest research of Cayenne
pepper. Thus the objective of this
research was to study changes in the
physiology and phytochemicals of
Cayenne pepper during the postharvest
period.
Materials and Methods
Plant Material Preparation
Red and green Cayenne peppers
(Capsicum annuum Linn. var acuminatum
Fingerh) were harvested at commercial
maturity from an orchard in Nontaburi
Province, Thailand. The fruit were
transported to the Postharvest Technology
laboratory at King Mongkut’s University
of Technology Thonburi within 3 hours
after harvesting and then were selected for
uniformity of maturity, color and size, and
also freedom from any defects and
diseases. The selected red and green
Cayenne peppers were cleaned with
running tap water and left to dry under
ambient condition for 30 minutes after
which the fruit were stored separately (red
and green) in plastic basket covered with a
polyethylene bag at 4oC (90-95% RH).
Samples of red and green Cayenne
peppers were taken every 5 days for
physiological and phytochemical analysis
during the storage period of 30 days.
Respiration and ethylene production rates
were monitored and total phenol content,
total ascorbic acid content, β-carotene
content and DPPH radical scavenging
activities were measured
Respiration and Ethylene Production
The rate of ethylene production was
measured by gas chromatography, using a
flame ionization detector (FID) equipped
with an 80/100-mesh Pora pack-Q column
with nitrogen as the carrier gas. The
Cayenne peppers were kept in plastic
chambers and incubated at 4oC for 3 h
after which a gas sample (1 mL) was taken
with a syringe. Respiration rates were also
determined by gas chromatography using
a 80/100-mesh Pora pack-Q column and a
thermal conductivity detector (CHROMATOPAC C-R 8A, SHIMADSU Co.,
Kyoto, Japan).
17
18
V. Srilaong and N. Kaewkhum
Total Phenol Content
Total soluble phenolic compounds
were measured using the method of
Singleton and Rossi (1965). Extracts
were separately prepared from the top
(around the calyx), the middle, and the
bottom part of the fruit with 3
replications. Two grams of fruit sample
were homogenized with 20mL of 80%
ethanol for 1 min. The extract was then
filtered and centrifuged at 10,000×g for
15min.
One
millilitre
of
the
supernatant was mixed with 1mL of
Folin Ciocalteu reagent (Sigma–
Aldrich, Buchs, Switzerland) and
10mL of 7% sodium carbonate. The
volume was increased to 25 mL with
distilled water and left to settle for 1 h.
The total phenolic content was then
read at 750nm using a spectrophotometer (UV-1601; Shimadsu Co.,
Kyoto, Japan). A standard curve of
gallic acid was used to quantify the
total phenolic content.
Total Ascorbic Acid Content
The total ascorbic acid content was
measured according to the method of
Hashimoto and Yamafuji (2001). Five
millilitres of fruit juice were mixed
with 20mL of cold 5% metaphosphoric
acid, and filtered through Whatman
No. 1 paper. A 0.4mL aliquot of the
filtrate was mixed with 0.2 mL of 2%
di-indophenol. The mixture was then
added to 0.4mL of 2% thiourea and
0.2mL of 1% dinitrophenol hydrazine,
and incubated at 37oC for 3 h. After
incubation, 1 mL of 85% sulphuric
acid was added, and the resultant
solution was incubated again at room
temperature for 30 min. Total ascorbic
acid was determined by measuring
absorbance at 540 nm using a
spectrophotometer
(UV-1601;
Shimadsu Co., Kyoto, Japan). The
concentration of total ascorbic acid was
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science
expressed in mg/100g on a fresh
weight basis.
β-Carotene Content
Each 2g sample of tissue was placed
in
50 ml of solution containing
hexane:acetone:ethanol (2:1:1) and
then homogenized and mixed ona
magnetic stirrer for 10 min. To this
homogenate was added 7.5 ml of
distilled water and the solution again
mixed on a magnetic stirrer for 5 min.
The sample was allowed to form two
phases with the upper phase being the
hexane phase (25 ml) and the lower
being a mixture of acetone and ethanol.
The upper phase was collected and its
absorbance was determined at 450 nm
according to the method of Scott
(2005).
DPPH Radical Scavenging Activity
The DPPH assay was carried out
according to the method of BrandWilliams et al. (1995) with some
modifications. The stock solution was
prepared by dissolving 24 mg DPPH
with 100 mL methanol and this stock
solution was stored at 20oC until
needed. A working solution was
obtained by mixing 10 mL of the stock
solution with 45 mL methanol to obtain
an absorbance of 1.1±0.02 units at 515
nm using the spectrophotometer. Fruit
extracts (150 µL) were allowed to react
with 2850 µL of the DPPH solution for
24 h in the dark. The absorbance was
then taken at 515 nm. The standard
curve was linear between 25 and 800
µM Trolox. Results are expressed in
µM TE/g fresh mass. Additional
dilution was needed if the DPPH value
measured was over the linear range of
the standard curve.
Vol. 44, No.5, Spcl. Iss. 2011
Physiological and phytochemical
changes in Cayenne pepper
Results and Discussion
The respiration rates of both the red
and green cayenne peppers showed the
same pattern throughout the storage
time of 30 days (Figure 1A). A peak of
respiration was observed on day 15 in
both pepper cultivars. Green cayenne
pepper had a significantly higher rate
of respiration than the red cultivar. The
ethylene production rates of red and
green cayenne peppers showed the
same trend of change during storage.
The maximum peak of ethylene
evolution in green pepper was on day
10. In the red pepper, the ethylene
production rate was lower and the peak
was shifted to day 15 (Figure 1B).
These results indicate that ethylene
production rose after the initial day of
storage whereas the respiration rate
was changed little during the first ten
days of storage. The later increase in
respiration may have been induced by
the ethylene production. Green cayenne
pepper had higher respiration and
ethylene production rates than the red
cultivar. This may imply that green
cultivar was an immature fruit while
the red cultivar was a more mature
fruit. Normally, the immature fruit
have higher respiration and ethylene
production rates than the mature fruit
(Tadesse et al., 1998).
Total phenolic content in both red
and green cayenne peppers was slightly
decreased during 20 days of storage
and then sharply declined through to
the end of storage (Figure 2). The total
phenolic content in the red pepper was
higher than in the green cultivar. This
may be due to the red pepper
containing anthocyanin as its major
pigment and anthocyanin is one class
of flavonoid compounds, which are
widely distributed plant polyphenols
thus the total phenolic content in red
pepper was greater compared to the
green one. This result was in contrast
with the finding of Zhang and
Hamauzu (2003) who determined that
the phenolic content in green bell
pepper was higher than in the red and
yellow cultivars. The differences
between the levels of phenolic
compounds in the peppers in our study
compared with the levels found by
Zhang and Hamauzu (2003) may be
due to the different cultivars of pepper
examined and may also be influenced
by differences in the environments in
which peppers were grown, with the
bell peppers being grown in a cooler
climate than that of cayenne pepper.
The β-carotene content in the green
pepper was in the range of 7-11 mg
gFW-1 while in the red pepper, the
content was some two-fold higher, in
the range of 15-30 mg gFW-1 (Figure
3). The content in the red pepper
increased after day 10 to a peak at
about day 20 then decreased to the end
of storage. In contrast the content in
green cayenne pepper did not change
significantly across the period of
storage. A similar observation was
reported by Zhang and Hamauzu
(2003) who reported that the
carotenoid content in red and yellow
bell peppers were greater than in green
cultivar due to the carotenoid
pigments.
Total ascorbic acid contents in both
the red and green cayenne peppers
changed little over the first 20 days of
storage (Figure 4) but increased sharply
to a peak at day 25 in the red pepper and
remained higher than in the green pepper
until the end of storage. In contrast, the
content in the green pepper declined
slowly from day 20 until the end of the
storage period. As mentioned above, the
green and red cayenne pepper were at
different maturity stages, thus the red
mature fruit had higher ascorbic acid
contents than the less mature green
19
V. Srilaong and N. Kaewkhum
20
pepper. Zhang and Hamauzu (2003) also
found that red bell pepper contained
higher ascorbic acid than the green
cultivar.
A
B
Figure 1 Respiration (A) and ethylene
production rate (B) of red and green cayenne
peppers during storage at 4oC. The vertical bars
indicate standard errors (n=3).
Figure 2 Changes in total phenolic contents in red
and green cayenne peppers during storage at 4oC.
The vertical bars indicate standard errors (n=3).
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science
Antioxidant activity in this research was
determined as the DPPH radical
scavenging activity (Figure 5). There
was little difference in DPPH radical
scavenging activity between the two
cultivars during the first 20 days of
storage. However, after day 20 the
DPPH radical scavenging activity in the
red pepper increased to a higher level
than in the green cultivar and was about
2-fold higher than in the green pepper by
the end of study. The higher
antioxidative activity in red pepper was
related with a higher content of ascorbic
acid, total phenolic compound and βcarotene.
Figure 4 Total ascorbic acid content in red and
green cayenne peppers during storage at 4oC. The
vertical bars indicate standard errors (n=3).
Figure 5 DPPH radical scavenging activity in
red and green cayenne peppers during storage at
4oC. The vertical bars indicate standard errors
(n=3).
Conclusions
Figure 3 Changes in β-carotene contents in red
and green cayenne peppers during storage at 4oC.
The vertical bars indicate standard errors (n=3).
Red cayenne pepper has higher
antioxidant activity (DPPH radical
scavenging activity) than green cayenne
pepper due to its higher levels of total
phenolic compounds, ascorbic acid and
β-carotene. This higher antioxidant
Vol. 44, No.5, Spcl. Iss. 2011
Physiological and phytochemical
changes in Cayenne pepper
activity would suggest that consumption
of the red cayenne pepper might gain
more beneficial to human health than
consumption of the green pepper.
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2: 22-27
This paper was originally presented at the International Conference on Agricalture and Agro-Industry
2010 (ICAA2010), November 19-20, 2010 Mae Fah
Luang University, Chiang Rai, Thailand
www.thaiagj.org
Thai Journal of Agricultural Science 2011, 44(5) : 22-28
Application of Chitosan for Reducing Chemical Fertilizer Uses
in Waxy Corn Growing
S. Boonlertnirun1 R. Suvannasara 1 P. Promsomboon2
and K. Boonlertnirun1
1
Faculty of Agricultural Technology and Agro-industry, Rajamangala University of
Technology Suvarnabhumi, Pranakhon Sri Ayuttaya province 13000, THAILAND
2
Faculty of Agriculture and Natural resource, Rajamangala University of Technology
Tawan-ok, Sri Racha, Chon Buri province, 20110.
Corresponding author: E-mail: kittihuntra@hotmail.com
Abstract
Chitosan is abundant biopolymer found in nature. It has been used to stimulate plant
growth and enhance crop yields. The objectives were to reduce chemical fertilizer uses in
waxy corn growing and also conserve soil physical properties and environment. This
experiment was conducted using a split plot in Randomized Complete Block Design with
two main plots and four subplots and replicated four times. Main plot was chitosan
application and control (no chitosan) and subplot was four rates (50+50, 50+25, 25+50 and
25+25 kg/rai) of chemical fertilizer mixed between formula 16-20-0 and 46-0-0. Field
experiment was carried out at field crop plot of Plant Science section, Rajamangala
University of Technology Suvarnabhumi, Pranakhon Sri Ayuttaya province during February
to April 2010. The results showed that chitosan application significantly increased (p