Storytelling in Urban Wayfinding Storytelling in Urban WayfindingStorytelling in Urban Wayfinding
Abstract
This dissertation aims to explore the possibilities of applying storytelling approaches to the design of urban wayfinding systems. In recent years, storytelling has received increasing attention in the private sector while it has also been studied extensively across academic disciplines ranging from literary studies to urban design. The Context chapter considers historical and modern interpretations of storytelling as well as providing an insight into the different types and roles of wayfinding systems. It then debates the idea of using storytelling approaches to the design of urban wayfinding systems by reviewing research on storytelling in closely related fields. Furthermore, methods of using wayfinding as a means of projecting the cultural identity of an individual city are also addressed. Interviews were conducted with two experienced designers, one working on pedestrian wayfinding and the other on digital, in order to identify how the storytelling approach can be used in practice. In the Case Studies chapter, the views of the interviewees on issues such as the interpretation and application of storytelling, the design process and cultural identity are discussed in the context of urban wayfinding. Although their approaches to the use of storytelling differ quite considerably in some aspects, they both focus on how to convey the narrative of a particular environment. The dissertation concludes that storytelling is useful at integrating various elements into a single system and cultivating a sense of place amongst those who use it.
Contents
2.1 The many faces of storytelling
10 Literary usage
10 Storytelling as a means of community development
11 The storytelling approach in the private sector
11
2.2 Urban wayfinding
12 Types of urban wayfinding
12 Urban wayfinding in city design
14
2.3 Can storytelling be used in the design of urban wayfinding systems?
18
23
3 Case studies: storytelling in urban wayfinding in practice
23
3.1 Research method
25
3.2.1 Pedestrian wayfinding — Ben Acornley
27
The meaning of storytelling
27
Reasons for using storytelling
Storytelling in the urban wayfinding design process 28 Relationship to clients
34
Relationship with the culture and identity of a place 35 Discussion 38 Summary 40
40
3.2.2 Interactive wayfinding — Sami Niemelä
43
The meaning of storytelling
43
Reasons for using storytelling
Storytelling in the urban wayfinding design process 44 Relationship to clients
46
Relationship with the culture and identity of a place 46 Discussion 47 Summary 48
49
4 Conclusion
Interviews 52 Bibliography 53
1 Introduction
In recent years, mobile web mapping applications such as Google Maps have found use beyond their traditional function as a means of pedestrian wayfinding and have become increasingly popular for exploring cities and urban landscapes. But while Google Maps is extremely effective at finding particular routes or locations it lacks the capacity to provide users with a unique experience of the city that they are exploring. Take, for example, London and New York, beyond distinct street names and grid layouts, the experience of exploring these very different cities through Google Maps is essentially the same. As Goldberger (2007) argues, when people discover a city through their mobile phones, they may physically be in that city but their minds are focusing on other places. For many, the act of exploring a new urban landscape has therefore necessarily become less an enjoyable experience.
The fact remains, however, that those visiting a particular city still want to experience those distinctive features and quirks that make that city unique even as this has become more challenging as a result of globalisation. As Simón (2013) has highlighted, it is imperative for cities to have a strong identity in order to attract tourism and enterprise in the age of globalisation. The founder of Applied Wayfinding, Tim Fendley (2015), contends;
‘The differentiation and distinctiveness peculiar to places will have more, not less, importance in the digital age. Events, unique gatherings and face to face meetings will become more powerful. And local flavour, accent, and attitude will be even more sought after.’
Fendley further states that the unique features of a particular place can be expressed through elements such as language, local knowledge and place names all of which can be utilised in the design of urban wayfinding systems, for example, city-wide transportation applications such as Citymapper. Urban wayfinding systems can therefore play an important role in improving the quality of people’s experiences of a city.
The challenges of creating an effective and enticing method of guiding people around a city, however, are numerous. Retaining the walker’s attention, navigating them to their destination and fostering an appreciation of the city are perhaps the most obvious of these challenges. In order to confront these issues, those designing urban wayfinding systems must have an understanding of a broad array of fields from urban design to user experience as well as an appreciation of both information and graphic design.
But what approaches can be used in developing an effective means of urban wayfinding? Bill Moggridge (2008), one of the founders of IDEO, has suggested storytelling as a possible solution for tying together the various aspects which make a successful urban wayfinding system. He states:
‘When you put all these things together, with elements from architecture, physical design, electronic technology from software, how do you actually prototype an idea for a service, and it seems that really, it’s about storytelling, it’s about narrative.’
The ability that storytelling has to synthesise the various elements of a complex service system chimes closely with the requirements of urban wayfinding design.
But the interpretation and use of storytelling described above is just one of many diverse strands of research that are currently exploring the potential of this technique. Providing a succinct description of storytelling is not simple but in essence it is a means of interaction with people and places through sharing stories and experiences. Certain scholars such as Roland Barthes (1977) have tended to focus on mediums of storytelling such as music, text and paintings to better understand their role in contributing to a narrative of society. Researchers in information design have suggested that storytelling is a method of personalising information. For example, Judith Moldenhauer, Associate Professor of Graphic Design at Wayne State University, USA has introduced the idea of storytelling to her students through a map design assignment (2003). Students were asked to design a new map of the university’s Art Department for new But the interpretation and use of storytelling described above is just one of many diverse strands of research that are currently exploring the potential of this technique. Providing a succinct description of storytelling is not simple but in essence it is a means of interaction with people and places through sharing stories and experiences. Certain scholars such as Roland Barthes (1977) have tended to focus on mediums of storytelling such as music, text and paintings to better understand their role in contributing to a narrative of society. Researchers in information design have suggested that storytelling is a method of personalising information. For example, Judith Moldenhauer, Associate Professor of Graphic Design at Wayne State University, USA has introduced the idea of storytelling to her students through a map design assignment (2003). Students were asked to design a new map of the university’s Art Department for new
Storytelling has the potential to be a significant new approach to the development of visually striking urban wayfinding systems that provide users with an experience that is unique to the city that they are exploring. Despite this, applying storytelling techniques to urban wayfinding is an idea that has not been given full consideration. The objective of this dissertation then, is to explore the uses of storytelling in the context of urban wayfinding and uncover how it can provide a unique experience of the city to users as well as contributing to the brand of individual cities. This dissertation does not, however, seek to evaluate the merit of applied methods due to the fact that the storytelling approach in design has not been fully developed and its interpretations and uses vary significantly between practitioners. The paper will begin by considering storytelling in a variety of contexts from literary studies to business design followed by defining the areas and roles of urban wayfinding. The second part of this dissertation will analyse a series of case studies collected through interviews and will focus on how the storytelling approach can reflect unique cultural and historical features to provide a city with a strong individual identity through the lens of urban wayfinding systems.
2 Context
1. Human-centred approach
As a human centred approach 1 , storytelling has been increasingly
Human-centred approach is to design things
used by businesses and corporations as a means of more effectively
that meets people’s needs, capabilities and variations of behaviours (Norman 2013).
engaging with consumers and, consequently, has begun to feature strongly in areas such as urban design and information design. Before considering the idea of utilising storytelling as an approach for developing methods of urban wayfinding, it is necessary to both define storytelling within more familiar contexts as well as provide a more comprehensive understanding of what is meant by the concept of urban wayfinding.
2.1 The many faces of storytelling
Literary usage
Storytelling can also be referred to as narrative, a term primarily used in linguistic and literary studies. It should, however, be noted that there are clear distinctions between what is narrative and what is a story (Chatman 1978). While a story contains elements such as a plot, characters and settings, the narrative is the way in which that story is told whether that is verbally, in a film, through dance or through a landscape. Prince’s (1987), A Dictionary of Narratology defines narrative as:
“The recounting (as product and process, object and act, structure and structuration) of one or more real or fictions events communicated by one, two, or several (more or less overt) narrators to one, two, or several (more or less overt) narratees.”
According to this definition, text that is purely descriptive (i.e.‘the fish is blue’/ ‘Anne is tall’) cannot be narratives whereas that which depicts specific events (i.e. the fish died’/ ‘Anne broke a glass’) are considered to be narratives. As well as in the spoken or written word, these defining features of narrative are also evident in other mediums of storytelling, such as fixed or moving images, gestures, music and landscapes (Barthes 1977, 79; Prince 1987, 58). Narrative has been a key component of the cultural landscape for millennia and is a fixture of many of humanity’s most celebrated modes of According to this definition, text that is purely descriptive (i.e.‘the fish is blue’/ ‘Anne is tall’) cannot be narratives whereas that which depicts specific events (i.e. the fish died’/ ‘Anne broke a glass’) are considered to be narratives. As well as in the spoken or written word, these defining features of narrative are also evident in other mediums of storytelling, such as fixed or moving images, gestures, music and landscapes (Barthes 1977, 79; Prince 1987, 58). Narrative has been a key component of the cultural landscape for millennia and is a fixture of many of humanity’s most celebrated modes of
Storytelling as a means of community development
Narrative also has an important role to play in the community; the study of the forms and functions of narrative in the everyday has been carried out by researchers’ in disciplines as wide-ranging as sociolinguistics, folklore, anthropology and literary theory who have explored the relationship between the use of language and society. As Johnstone (1990) states, narratives are ‘shared voices which reflect the texture of the community’. Narratives allow people to communicate with and understand each within communities and wider society through stories that foster a sense of shared cultural experience. Pre-historic cave drawings which depict animals, human beings and simple objects are perhaps one of the most powerful examples of this. They have been found in most parts of the world: from Europe to Africa, America, Asia, Australia, and the Polynesian Islands. The oldest ones were found in Lascaux and Niaux, southern France, drawn around 13,000 bce. The pictures (Fig. 1) were frequently drawn on cave walls serving
Figure 1. Cave painting, Cougnac, France,
as a prompt to those narrating stories while also helping their
13,000 bce
audience to visualise the tale being recounted (Poulin 2012).
Poulin, Graphic Design + Architecture, a 20th Century History: A Guide to Type,
Consequently, caves became a venue for listening to stories for
Image, Symbol, and Visual Storytelling in the Modern World.
these communities. Stories, therefore, not only bring people together but also tie people to specific places.
The storytelling approach in the private sector
In recent years, storytelling has become an influential strategy in the world of business by allowing companies to convert their insights and service ideas into user experiences. Companies now use the art of storytelling as a means of communicating with consumers as evidenced by adverts designed to portray the lives of their customers or depict the experiences of their employees. Demonstrating why a customer might use a particular product / In recent years, storytelling has become an influential strategy in the world of business by allowing companies to convert their insights and service ideas into user experiences. Companies now use the art of storytelling as a means of communicating with consumers as evidenced by adverts designed to portray the lives of their customers or depict the experiences of their employees. Demonstrating why a customer might use a particular product /
Although contemporary appropriations of the art of storytelling may sound different from its literary and oral origins, the role of stories in modern society remains the same, to share experiences and make things understandable to everybody in a particular community or place.
2.2 Urban wayfinding
Types of urban wayfinding
Wayfinding denotes the professional practice of designing and implementing systems for navigating buildings and outdoor spaces (Mollerup 2013, 26) In this dissertation, wayfinding in cities, which can be applied to urban spaces such as pedestrian walkways and transport hubs, is defined as ‘urban wayfinding’. Urban wayfinding refers to both physical (i.e. signs) and digital methods for exploring
a city. The decision whether to develop a physical or digital means of wayfinding ultimately depends on its purpose. In New York, for example, WalkNYC (Fig. 2), designed by Pentagram, is a form of pedestrian wayfinding that utilises static maps and directional signs which are located on pavements and inside train stations, a city. The decision whether to develop a physical or digital means of wayfinding ultimately depends on its purpose. In New York, for example, WalkNYC (Fig. 2), designed by Pentagram, is a form of pedestrian wayfinding that utilises static maps and directional signs which are located on pavements and inside train stations,
The emergence of digital technology has greatly expanded the potential of urban wayfinding systems. As Mollerup highlights, interactive kiosks, smartphone apps, qr codes and augmented reality not only enable people to find a route to a particular location but also facilitate the exploration and understanding
Figure 2. WalkNYC designed by Pentagram, in corporation with City ID, Billings Jackson Design, rba Group and T-Kartor, 2013 http://new.pentagram.com/2013/06/new- work-nyc-wayfinding/
Figure 3. On The Go Interactive Wayfinding Kiosks, designed by Control Group in corporation with mta , 2014 http://www.controlgroup.com/mta.html Figure 3. On The Go Interactive Wayfinding Kiosks, designed by Control Group in corporation with mta , 2014 http://www.controlgroup.com/mta.html
Urban wayfinding in city design
The way in which people travel around a metropolitan area is, of course, a crucial consideration when designing a city. Before focusing on the role of wayfinding in urban design, it is necessary to highlight the essential qualities and elements of planning what could be termed a ‘good city’. Numerous theories and strategies for urban design have been put forward since the 1960s but, as the European Commission highlights in a Green Paper published in 1990, generating and protecting a sense of place is an essential element of city design. The notion of a ‘sense of place’ can broadly
be defined as those unique features such as historical heritage and cultural identity which differentiate one place from another. Montgomery (1989), a renowned urban planner, points out that fostering a sense of place is at the heart of planning a good city. He also states that a good urban environment has quality in three essential areas: form (landmarks, public streets), image (legibility, symbols) and activity (street life and events, local traditions) (Fig.4) . Montgomery (1989), a renowned urban planner, points out that fostering a sense of place is at the heart of planning a good city. He also states that a good urban environment has quality in three essential areas: form (landmarks and thoroughfares), image (legibility, symbols) and activity (street life, events and local traditions) (Fig.4). Montgomery stresses that these elements should blend into the fabric of the city yet should also be visually stimulating and provoke interest. Urban wayfinding has the ability to improve how people interact and engage with the character of
a city and, in the following section, this is discussed and assessed in relation to the elements identified by Montgomery as being cornerstones of good city design.
Figure 4. Policy directions to foster an urban sense of place. Urban wayfinding may exists in between Form and Image, or Image and Activity (areas of grey colour).
Street life ACTIVITY
FORM Paths
John Montgomery, ‘Making a City: Urbanity,
Vitality and Urban Design.’
Cafe culture
Markets Local traditions
IMAGE
Legibility Visibility Identity Symbols Colour Smell Sound
• Image With respect to image, the primary function of urban wayfinding systems in this area is to improve the definition and perceptibility of city forms. As Lynch (1960) states, there are five core elements which comprise the form of a city: paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks all of which should be clearly recognisable with intuitive and consistent symbols if an urban wayfinding system is to both capture and contribute to the form of individual cities.
A map with pictograms and illustrated landmarks or a set of written instructions are, for instance, methods that can be used to emphasise the form of a city within urban wayfinding systems. New York, for example, boasts a wayfinding system that is particularly effective at demonstrating the unique form and character of the city through cartography, pictograms and typography which are consistent as well as a clear hierarchy of information (Fig.5). Moreover, illustrations of notable landmarks (Fig.6) are simplified by being easily recognisable.
In addition to enhancing the definition of city forms, urban wayfinding systems also have the potential to contribute to a city’s
Figure 5 (left).
WalkNYC, hierarchy of information produced by Pentagram, 2013. http://new.pentagram.com/2013/06/new- work-nyc-wayfinding/
Figure 6 (right). WalkNYC, landmark illustrations for maps designed by Pentagram, 2013. http://new.pentagram.com/2013/06/new- work-nyc-wayfinding/
unique identity. London has perhaps the most famous example of this through the Transport for London logo (Fig. 7) which appears on all forms of mass transit servicing the city from boats to trams and everything in between. The logo also features on street maps and underground stations as a means of helping people to orientate themselves. This well-known symbol (Fig. 8) first appeared in 1905
Figure 7. Logo of London underground
when it was chosen as the motif that represented a wheel of train
http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-
for the newly established London General Omnibus Company
media/46/
(Lawrence 2000). The intervening hundred years since the logo was first created has seen some changes to the original version but the blue bar and red circle, mirroring the colours of the Union Jack, has become a defining feature of London’s transportation network and a symbol of London’s identity which is recognised globally. Such as in the case of London, environmental graphics can influence the look of an urban area and contribute to the
Figure 8. The first logo of London underground
unique identity of a city. This should be factored into the design of
Poulin, Graphic Design + Architecture, a 20th
urban wayfinding systems by reflecting the distinct cultural and
Century History: A Guide to Type, Image, Symbol, and Visual Storytelling in the Modern
historical features which make that city unique.
World
Furthermore, since the importance of the psychological impacts of urban design were first discussed by Lynch (1960), designers of wayfinding systems have sought to introduce cues which
2. Mental maps
enable people to form mental maps 2 . Developing systems which
Lynch (1960) defines mental maps are simple sketches of maps drawn from memory of
contribute to or invoke feelings of safety, comfort, vibrancy or
urban areas. He used mental maps collected
quietude is essential in urban wayfinding.
from citizens of three cities of the USA in order to reveal the geographical and social problems of the cities.
• Activity
A city which boasts an array of events including festivals, fairs and markets as well as a range of potential rendezvous points such as cafés or squares can be considered to sustain an environment that is both active and interactive (Montgomery 1998; de Waal 2014). Both physical and digital wayfinding systems have the capacity to showcase these features to visitors as well as providing directions for how to get to events, festivals or popular meeting places. The Tokyo Art Beat mobile application (Fig.9), for example, provides information on exhibitions and art events taking place in Tokyo and then uses gps to provide directions to where these are taking place. The app also allows the user to browse for exhibitions based on personal preferences, access reviews of exhibitions and events as well as find out where it is taking place relative to their current
Figure 9. Tokyo Art Beat app released by Gadago npo . Left: Shows exhibitions nearby a user Right: Map of nearby exhibitions http://www.tokyoartbeat.com Figure 9. Tokyo Art Beat app released by Gadago npo . Left: Shows exhibitions nearby a user Right: Map of nearby exhibitions http://www.tokyoartbeat.com
As such, generating and protecting a sense of place may be possible by improving the quality of urban wayfinding systems available. Indeed instilling a sense of place has become increasingly important as cities vie with each other to attract enterprise and tourism on both the national and global stage (Radovic, 2008). Richard Simón (2013), Planning Director at Applied Wayfinding highlights that metropolises throughout the world are struggling to meet the challenges of developing sustainable communities, alleviating pressure on increasingly congested transport links as well as protect and promote cultural diversity. Ensuring that there are distinct features not seen anywhere else in the world is key to the planning and branding of a city.
2.3 Can storytelling be used in the design of urban wayfinding systems?
The multi-faceted, complex nature of designing methods of urban wayfinding would seem to suggest that storytelling could hold the key to the development of urban wayfinding systems which reflect the character and distinctiveness of the city that it services. Due to the limited number of sources available on the relationship between storytelling and wayfinding, this dissertation will also consider the existing literature on the impact of storytelling techniques in related fields including urban design and information design to develop a broader understanding of the benefits that the storytelling approach offers. Many scholars and practitioners in the fields identified above have reflected on the potential of storytelling in their work but interpretations and uses of it can vary considerably due to the demands and nuances of their respective areas of study.
In the landscape and urban design fields, storytelling is used In the landscape and urban design fields, storytelling is used
II to help address issues arising from population growth, housing shortages, unemployment and growing pressure on transport. As this example clearly demonstrates, storytelling in urban spaces reflects the cultures, traditions and political issues that shape a city’s image and identity.
Similarly, environmental graphic design such as signs and billboards have been described as visual storytelling (Poulin 2012). Over the centuries, collaboration across the fields of architecture and graphic design has shaped the cityscapes that are the defining feature of urban centres across the world today. The basic tenets of environmental graphic design are typography, images and symbols all of which can be used to convey a sense of time and place in a city as well as contribute to the visual stories told by the architecture of buildings and landmarks. The entrance to the Paris Metro, designed by Hector Guimard (Fig. 10), is an iconic example of the interplay between architecture and environmental graphic
Figure 10. Paris Metro Entrance designed by
design. The typography, inspired by the work of French type
Hector Guimard, 1898 http://www.macklowegallery.com/education.
designer, George Auriol, exists in complete harmony with the art-
asp/art+nouveau/Artist+Biographies/
nouveau style of the surrounding architecture providing a striking
antiques/Decorative+Artists/education/ Hector+Guimard/id/25
identity and brand for the Paris Metro.
The analysis above considers isolated examples of where storytelling has been incorporated into the design of urban environments and spaces but, similar to the aim of this dissertation, studies do exist which take a more holistic approach to exploring how storytelling approaches can be applied to services used and journeys taken by the public. Take, for instance, the work of Viña and Mattelmäki (2010), design researchers at Aalto University, whose innovative Spice project developed experiential
Figure 11. Mockup of a concept idea of
public spaces at a Helsinki Metro station in the Otanemi district
Otaniemi metro station platform, 2010 Viña, and Mattelmäki, ‘Spicing up Public
of the city (Fig. 11) which aimed to reflect the local historical and
Journeys – Storytelling as a Design Strategy.’
cultural character of this area. Although this project was directed
Figure 12. The path of storytelling as a design
more towards space design and urban experiences, Viña and
strategy prepared by Viña and Mattelmäki, 2010. Storytelling is not a single process. One
Mattelmäkis’ interpretation of storytelling and the processes
process and its outcome relate to more than
that were followed in order to create an enjoyable public space
one next processes.
at the Metro Station in Otaniemi are remarkable. They define
Viña, and Mattelmäki, ‘Spicing up Public
the purpose of storytelling approaches as the need to, ‘identify,
Journeys – Storytelling as a Design Strategy.’
strengthen and create a strong identity of a place in which inhabitants and travellers can relate to’.
Figure 12 is a visualisation of the processes which Viña and Mattelmäki followed in order to successfully use the storytelling approach as a design strategy. Their first step was to develop an understanding of the distinct identity of Otaniemi which was achieved through observation of the district as a whole and the environment around the Metro station. Stories from residents of Otaneimi were also gathered and collated through interview design probes, a method used by sociologists to collect data and information on user journeys and urban practices, which enabled Viña and Mattelmäki to build up a picture of the cultural history of the area and clarified specific elements of the design of the experiential space. The final part of the project was to come up with the final concept of the design based on the outcomes of their research. Viña and Mattelmäki concluded that the storytelling approach was the most effective means of realising their vision of creating an aesthetically powerful experiential space that interacts with human emotions and engages all of the senses. Moreover, storytelling was also used to create and arrange the image that the service projected.
These studies suggest that there are three ways of utilising the storytelling approach in urban wayfinding. Firstly, during These studies suggest that there are three ways of utilising the storytelling approach in urban wayfinding. Firstly, during
a given environment such as the strategies they use, what shortcuts they take and any difficulties that they encounter. They can then build up a nuanced picture of user experiences, personas and journeys from these findings (Moldenhauer 2003). Information about the identity of a specific environment or place can also be gleaned from aspects of the cityscape such as the five elements posited by Lynch (1960) (paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks). The heritage of a city should also be given consideration, for example, does the city have its origins as a market towns or ports or did it develop from the protection and patronage of a castle? The information gained from these areas of research is important in designing all elements of the wayfinding
3. Look and feel
system from its most basic functions to the overall look and feel 3 of
According to Davis (2009), it is ’the visual style of a brand which encompasses the brand
the system.
mark, colours, font and images’. The look and feel produces a visual identity of the brand, and it is utilised in the commercial world.
Secondly, storytelling is also effective at developing a holistic service system that incorporates the many different requirements of urban wayfinding in the 21 st Century which demands the coordination and management of an array of organisations, service
4. Touchpoint
touchpoints 4 and design features. Despite the complex make up of
Touchpoint is defined as ‘any point of contact between a Customer and the Service Provider’
cities, in the main people are disinclined to learn more than one
(The Master Board 2013). Regarding
method of wayfinding and, as such, Fendley (2015) has suggested
urban wayfinding system, touchpoints are pedestrian signs, maps in transportation and
that cities should have just one user-friendly system. Stories which
mobile applications.
are developed from an understanding of the needs of customers’ and the interplay between people and places is a means of tying the cityscape, architecture, communication, marketing and user experience elements of urban wayfinding together. Storytelling, therefore, is a way of creating a service and system that fulfils users’ requirements while at the same time cutting through the complexity of cities.
Lastly, methods of urban wayfinding developed using the storytelling approach are able to engender a sense of place. The local characteristics and identity of a place which are unearthed during the research phase of the project can be reflected in aspects Lastly, methods of urban wayfinding developed using the storytelling approach are able to engender a sense of place. The local characteristics and identity of a place which are unearthed during the research phase of the project can be reflected in aspects
It can therefore be asserted that the storytelling approach enables designers to create comprehensive, human-centred wayfinding systems which provide users with a unique experience of the city they are in. Beyond their primary function as a navigational tool, wayfinding systems can impart information about the history and traditions of a city through succinct, well organised facts and anecdotes while its cultural identity and character can be reflected through its visual aspects. If urban wayfinding is able to marry these features tastefully it will contribute to both a distinctive identity of the city and generate a sense of place.
It is, however, rare for wayfinding designers to attempt to capture the cultural identity of the city in the systems that they create. Krzysztofiak (2011), in his thesis Wayfinding in Poland, concludes that many wayfinding designers in Poland are unaware of the impact that the visualisation of wayfinding can have on the image and branding of public places. He discovers that designers give little thought to the notion of trying to reflect Polish culture and identity in the systems they develop suggesting a lack of understanding of the importance of wayfinding as a form of environmental graphic design. Rather it appears that greater significance has been placed on ensuring that representations are accurate and easily understood.
Watson and Bentley (2007) assert that every aspect of a city contributes to how its identity is constructed and projected. Wayfinding may just be one small part of the many elements and features that comprise a city but it undoubtedly has a part to play through the provision of a unique experience which offers a distilled version of that city’s distinct identity to users.
The next chapter will explore how storytelling can be applied to the design and development of wayfinding systems that convey a narrative and contribute to a city’s identity by analysing two case studies.
3 Case studies: storytelling in urban wayfinding in practice
3.1 Research method
The limited number of sources available on how storytelling can
be applied to urban wayfinding does present some challenges for developing a coherent understanding of the relationship between the two. Furthermore, as alluded to above, storytelling is, by nature, ambiguous meaning that the interpretation and uses of this approach for the purposes of urban wayfinding design has the potential to vary considerably among practitioners. For this reason, it was decided to conduct more accurate research by interviewing experts in the field of urban wayfinding with a focus on how they have interpreted and utilised the storytelling approach in their own projects.
Designers who practice storytelling methods in either physical or digital urban wayfinding systems were invited to take part in interviews. The first of these was with Ben Acornley, Partner and Creative Director at Applied Wayfinding, UK. Acornley has been involved in numerous urban wayfinding projects including Legible London as well as having a wealth of experience in the areas of editorial and branding. Acornley was approached for an interview on account of his intuitive use of storytelling approaches when developing methods of pedestrian wayfinding as well as his insights on detailed visual communication and branding. The second interviewee was Sami Niemelä, Creative Director and Co-Founder of Nordkapp based in Helsinki. One of his major projects, Urbanflow, is a concept piece which posits the idea of an operating system for individual cities (Nordkapp and Urbanscale 2011). Niemelä was approached for an interview due to his efforts to create better urban spaces through human-centred interaction design as well as his use of storytelling for prototyping interactive wayfinding and product presentation. Acornley was asked to propose the most convenient time for an interview and this was conducted at the office of Applied Wayfinding. The conversation which took place was recorded and notes were taken. Due to the length of the discussion and the complex nature of some of the
language used, the interview is only partially transcribed and is summarised rather than written in full in this dissertation. The interview with Niemelä was conducted in the form of an email questionnaire and is cited in full. The disparity in the volume of material taken from each interview is due to the different ways that they were conducted with Acornley’s interview yielding much more information due to the fact that it was a one-hour conversation in person during which numerous projects were discussed. By contrast, the interview with Niemelä by email only gave the opportunity to discuss one project. The two participants were asked the same set of questions regarding urban wayfinding projects that they have been involved in, with a specific emphasis on uncovering what the concept of storytelling means to them, the advantages of the storytelling approach at different phases of the design process and the effect it has on user experience and visual outcomes. The first five questions were specifically ordered to mirror the process of wayfinding design: defining meaning and methodology, developing the system and the concept, designing the visuals and, lastly, evaluating the results. The final question, Question 6, sought to explore how storytelling relates to the culture and identity of a place.
The section on case studies is divided between the two interviewees. Each case will begin with a description of the participants’ company and some of the projects they have been involved in following which the interviewee and their role in each of the projects will be introduced. Finally, their answers to each of the questions will be presented and discussed in detail. The contents of each interview will be categorised into the following five sections: The meaning of storytelling, Reasons for using storytelling , Storytelling in the urban wayfinding design process, Relationship to clients and Relationship with the cultural and identity of a place . The answers to Question 5 will be integrated into the discussions on Questions 3 and 6 as they are closely related.
List of questions:
1. What does storytelling mean to you?
2. Why do you use storytelling in your wayfinding project?
3. How do you use storytelling in your wayfinding project? At what stages in designing do you use storytelling?
4. How do you introduce the concept of storytelling into a client’s brief?
5. In what ways has storytelling affected the outcomes of your projects?
6. In what ways do you relate storytelling to the culture and identity of a place? How does this affect the visual design?
3.2.1 Pedestrian wayfinding — Ben Acornley
Although there is an abundance of research material available on pedestrian wayfinding, the majority of it tends to concentrate on ways to improve the legibility and usability of these systems through visual design, for example, colour contrasts and typography. This would appear to suggest that more research is required on enhancing user experience and the contribution that wayfinding can make to the identity of a city. Indeed, Applied Wayfinding have implemented a number of pedestrian wayfinding projects during which they have conducted extensive research on user experiences and how these systems translate across cultural boundaries. To explore how Applied Wayfinding have combined the findings of their research with the narrative of the areas in which they created wayfinding systems was the purpose of the interview with Ben Acornley.
Applied Wayfinding is an international consultancy based in London which has built its name on designing legible systems for diverse and complex environments. The Company garnered a strong reputation in the wake of their Legible London (Fig. 13–15) project and have grown to become the global standard for urban wayfinding design. Following the success of Legible London and, using the strategy and processes they developed for this project, Applied Wayfinding has designed systems for cities throughout the world including Manchester, Vancouver, Hong Kong and Qatar
Figure 13 (left). Legible London, map in underground stations designed by Applied Wayfinding http://appliedwayfinding.com/
Figure 14 (right). Legible London, on-street minilith designed by Applied Wayfinding http://appliedwayfinding.com/
Figure 15. Legible London, totem sign designed by Applied Wayfinding http://appliedwayfinding.com/
as well as developing a system for Heathrow Airport. Through these projects, Applied Wayfinding have been at the forefront of exploring the potential of urban wayfinding which they have achieved through careful research and intelligent analysis of the legibility of cities. Despite the complex environments and information with which they work, expertise in the editorial and design fields have allowed them to ensure that the experience of the end user is the focus of the systems that they create.
Ben Acornley is a Partner and Creative Director of Applied Wayfinding, leading the design development of numerous major urban wayfinding projects undertaken by Applied Wayfinding including in London, Leeds, Bournemouth, Vancouver and at Heathrow Airport. He also supervised the creation and implementation of the Legible London prototype which was piloted on Bond Street. Before joining Applied Wayfinding, he had Ben Acornley is a Partner and Creative Director of Applied Wayfinding, leading the design development of numerous major urban wayfinding projects undertaken by Applied Wayfinding including in London, Leeds, Bournemouth, Vancouver and at Heathrow Airport. He also supervised the creation and implementation of the Legible London prototype which was piloted on Bond Street. Before joining Applied Wayfinding, he had
In the following sections, a summary of the interview with Acornley is provided and is considered in conjunction with a book which was been written on the Legible London project entitled Yellow Book: A Prototype Wayfinding System for London , published by Applied Information Group (now Applied Wayfinding) in 2007.
The meaning of storytelling
For Acornley, storytelling is about effectively interpreting and projecting the image of a particular place by understanding its essential components and characteristics. He believes that while landmarks and tourist attractions are important protagonists in the narrative of any city, to understand the full story one must look beyond the obvious and consider every facet of that city’s character including the people that make up the city and the culture and traditions to which they contribute. This interpretation of storytelling chimes with the perspective of many urban designers (Potteiger and Purinton 1998; Childs 2008) particularly Acornley’s view on the role that architectural and cultural features play in a city’s story.
Reasons for using storytelling
Acornley’s rationale for using storytelling is to help people understand a place in a way that is friendly and accessible. He argues that many existing wayfinding projects are based on disseminating information rather than producing designs which engage with pedestrians. In essence, this means that information on these wayfinding systems may be aesthetically pleasing but this is often at the expense of their intuitiveness and usability for pedestrians. As Acornley points out, information or maps which are presented in a complex format can often frustrate users. Presenting information in simple and consistent manner on the other hand, such as through the storytelling approach, allows users to pick up necessary information easily. The interviewee also emphasised that he aims to provide users with an engaging Acornley’s rationale for using storytelling is to help people understand a place in a way that is friendly and accessible. He argues that many existing wayfinding projects are based on disseminating information rather than producing designs which engage with pedestrians. In essence, this means that information on these wayfinding systems may be aesthetically pleasing but this is often at the expense of their intuitiveness and usability for pedestrians. As Acornley points out, information or maps which are presented in a complex format can often frustrate users. Presenting information in simple and consistent manner on the other hand, such as through the storytelling approach, allows users to pick up necessary information easily. The interviewee also emphasised that he aims to provide users with an engaging
Storytelling in the urban wayfinding design process
As explained above, Acornley’s interpretation of storytelling is
a method which enables designers to capture the character of a specific place and, consequently, begins during the research phase of the project when it is considered alongside the needs of people and visitors as they interact with the surrounding environment. Storytelling is further used to provide a succinct description of the city which can be easily understood by local residents and visitors alike. The storytelling approach is therefore applicable during numerous phases of the project from the initial research to the development and implementation of the system.
• Identifying the character of a place Acornley emphasises that environmental information, forms of architecture and graphic language are picked up and decoded as representations of a particular place. In the case of Legible London, building design, urban form, street layout, lighting, use of street furniture and public art are the important elements (Applied Information Group 2007); Acornley describes these features as ‘the story of architecture’. Although identifying the character of a place constitutes the initial stage of the project, the information that this research provides is fundamental in shaping the way in which the system develops and how the visual elements of the way finding system are designed.
• Observing people According to Acornley, how people move around a place, their cultural background and the type of information they require should all be clearly understood when developing a wayfinding • Observing people According to Acornley, how people move around a place, their cultural background and the type of information they require should all be clearly understood when developing a wayfinding
he undertook in Qatar as an example, stating that ‘because of the heat, people in Qatar prefer using their cars rather than walking, so they need information about car parking’. Therefore, the information that people require depends on their behaviours and customs. Visiting the location where the wayfinding system will be located in order to conduct field research is perhaps the best way of observing people and gathering user stories.
• User persona Acornley asserts that designers should seek to understand and develop systems that meet the needs and expectations of different groups of users including residents, tourists and commuters. The journeys that these groups take through an environment vary considerably and thus observations should lead to the development of several user personas that will inform the eventual design of the system. In the case of Legible London, the project team identified four main groups of people from their research, namely novice striders, expert striders, novice strollers and expert strollers (Applied Information Group 2007). Those termed as striders wish to travel efficiently utilising available methods of transport whereas strollers prefer to traverse and explore the city on foot (Fig.16). Legible London was created in order to meet the needs of all the four groups identified during the research phase is reflected in the user experience. Such as in this case, designing
a system which is capable of responding to the requirements of each user persona identified is a necessity for the development of a successful method of wayfinding.
• Mapping Mapping and coding information collected during the research phase of the project were also highlighted by Acornley as an important aspect of storytelling. In order for pedestrians to orientate themselves effectively, Acornley stresses the importance of creating maps, and this is a common theme throughout the wayfinding projects that he has been involved with. Legible London
Figure 16. Legible London,diagrams of two
A strider’s journey
primarily ‘Tube and walk’
types of user journeys produced by Applied in London. Their conceptual
A strider’s goals include
efficient travelling.
model of their journey is like
Wayfinding ‘stones skimming accross the
Striders needs the walking
architecture to connect up
pond’. The strategy is ‘get near,
different transportation
then find it’.
modes and nodes –
Applied Information Group, Yellow Book: A
I'm here
Prototype Wayfinding System for London.
I'm there
Start
Finish
A stroller’s journey
street level – allowing
A stroller’s goals are
them to drift, wander and
memorable experiences.
have the confidence to get
Strollers need the walking
lost. The conceptual model
system to work for them
of a stroller is akin to
opportunistically at the
‘ripples in a pond’.
Where shall we go?
Here?
Here? Here?
Here? Or here?