AN ANALYSIS OF EXPERIENTIAL FUNCTIONS IN READER
A N A N A L Y S IS O F E X P E R IE N T IA L F U N C T IO N S IN R E A D E R ’S D IG E S T
M A G A Z IN E ’S S E L E C T E D A R T IC L E S
B Y : B E R N I E K E A . R I S T I A D A M A N I K , S .P d , M .H u m
IN T R O D U C T IO N
1 .1 B a c k g r o u n d o f t h e A n a l y s i s
H u m a n b e in g a s so c ia l fig u re n e e d s th e m e a n s o f c o m m u n ic a tio n w h ic h is c o m m o n ly
n a m e d la n g u a g e . It is a th e o ry o f H a llid a y (in S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 5 6 ) “ L a n g u a g e a s a re so u rc e fo r
m a k in g m e a n in g w h ic h is situ a te d in a c o n te x t o f situ a tio n a n d a c o n te x t o f c u ltu re ” . In o th e r
w o rd s, it c o n c e rn s w ith th e stu d y o f re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n la n g u a g e a n d c o n te x ts in w h ic h is u se d .
“A
la n g u a g e is a „m e ta sta b le ‟ sy ste m ; it p e rsists b e c a u se it is c o n sta n tly in flu x ” H a llid a y (in
S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 4 7 ). It is a lso c a lle d S y ste m ic F u n c tio n a l L in g u istic s, H a llid a y (in S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 5 6 ),
th e re a re 3 m a jo r fu n c tio n s o f la n g u a g e :
1 . T h e Id e a tio n a l F u n c tio n
It is la n g u a g e a s re p re se n ta tio n o r re fle c tio n in w h ic h th e sp e a k e r a s a n o b se rv e r o f
re a lity c o n stru e s “ n a tu ra l” re a lity . T h e re a re 2 su b fu n c tio n s in th e Id e a tio n a l F u n c tio n :
a .) T h e E x p e r i e n t i a l F u n c t i o n
It u se s la n g u a g e a s re p re se n ta tio n th e n ; it is re a liz e d b y th e tra n sitiv ity sy ste m .
b .) T h e L o g i c a l F u n c t i o n
It u se s la n g u a g e a s n a tu ra l lo g ic . It is re a liz e d b y th e c la u se c o m p le x ity sy ste m
la n g u a g e .
of
2 . T h e In te rp e rso n a l F u n c tio n
It is la n g u a g e a s e x c h a n g e o r a c tio n , in w h ic h th e sp e a k e r a s a n in tru d e r o f re a lity
c o n stru e s in te rsu b je c tiv e re a lity . It is re a liz e d b y th e m o o d sy ste m .
3 . T h e T e x tu a l F u n c tio n
It
is
as
m essage
o r re le v a n c e
in
w h ic h
th e
sp e a k e r c o n stru e s
se m io tic
re a lity
by
re a litie s to th e c o n te x ts w ith in w h ic h m e a n in g s a re m a d e . It is re a liz e d b y th e th e m e sy ste m .
B a se d o n th e th e o ry o f S y ste m ic , S in a r (2 0 0 3 : 5 5 ), la n g u a g e is a so c ia l p h e n o m e n o n ,
th a t is to sa y th a t la n g u a g e te n d s to b e th e m e a n s o f d o in g so m e th in g th a n k n o w in g so m e th in g .
L a n g u a g e is a sy ste m th a t c o n sists o f th e c h o ic e s o f m e a n in g . S o m e o f th e im p o rta n t m a in p o in ts
o f S y ste m ic F u n c tio n a l L a n g u a g e T h e o ry a n d h o w o n e re la te s to th e o th e r in fo rm in g b a sis o f
d isc o u rse a n a ly sis th a t w ill b e d iv id e d in to 3 m a in e x p la n a tio n s, th e y a re :
1 . L a n g u a g e is F u n c tio n a l
L a n g u a g e h a s e v o lv e d to se rv e h u m a n n e e d s a n d th e n a s su c h th a t o n e n e e d s to fo c u s
on
how
p e o p le
use
la n g u a g e
in
o rd er
to
u n d e rsta n d
it. T h e
fu n c tio n a l w ith re sp e c t to th e h u m a n n e e d s; it is n o t a rb itra ry b y
w ay
la n g u a g e
is
o rg a n iz e d
is
H a llid a y (in
S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 5 5 ).
2 . T h e F u n c tio n o f L a n g u a g e is to M a k e M e a n in g s
W h e n h u m a n b e in g s e x p re ss th e ir n e e d s th ro u g h la n g u a g e , th e y a re m a k in g m e a n in g s
in a te x t, w h ic h is a fu n c tio n a l la n g u a g e . C o n te x tu a liz in g th is to la n g u a g e le a rn in g , H a llid a y (in
S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 5 6 ) v ie w s la n g u a g e le a rn in g a s “ le a rn in g h o w
m a k e m e a n in g s.
3 . L a n g u a g e U se is C o n te x tu a l
to m e a n ” , th a t is, le a rn in g h o w
to
L a n g u a g e u se is c o n te x tu a l, p a rtic u la rly in th e se n se th a t it i s c o n te x tu a lly b o u n d o r
m o tiv a te d . T h e c o n te x tu a liz a tio n o f la n g u a g e p ro p o se d b y M a lin o w sk i
(in S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 5 8 )
is e x te n d e d b y F irth , in w h ic h h e a rg u e s th a t lin g u istic s sh o u ld b e lin k e d to c u ltu ra l c o n te x t
b e c a u se th e m e a n in g o f lin g u istic ite m
is d e p e n d e n t o n c u ltu ra l c o n te x t (in S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 5 8 ).
G e n e ra l S y ste m ic -fu n c tio n a l L in g u istic T h e o ry v ie w s th a t la n g u a g e is a n e x p re ssio n o f so c ia l
b e h a v io u r
in
c o n te x ts. In
M a lin o w sk i‟s
fre q u e n tly
q u o te d
w o rd s
(in
S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 5 8 ), “ th e
m e a n in g o f a n y sin g le w o rd is to a v e ry h ig h d e g re e d e p e n d e n t o n its c o n te x t” .
H a llid a y (in S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 6 0 ) sa y s th a t th e re a re six E x p e rie n tia l F u n c tio n s, th e y a re :
1 . M a te ria l F u n c tio n
T h e p r o c e s s o f d o i n g s a n d h a p p e n i n g s , i n w h i c h a p a r t i c i p a n t , i .e . „ a t h i n g ‟ , i s e n g a g e d
in a p ro c e ss o f d o in g , w h ic h m a y in v o lv e so m e o th e r p a rtic ip a n t(s).
2 . M e n ta l F u n c tio n
The
p ro cess
of
se n sin g , in
w h ic h
a
p a r t i c i p a n t , i .e . a
c o n sc io u s
b e in g
o r th in g , is
e n g a g e d i n a p r o c e s s o f s e e i n g , f e e l i n g , o r t h i n k i n g , w h i c h m a y i n v o l v e s o m e o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t ( s ).
3 . R e la tio n a l F u n c tio n
T h e p ro c e ss o f b e in g , w h o se c e n tra l m e a n in g is so m e th in g is
(a ttrib u te ,
id e n tity ).
4 . B e h a v io u ra l F u n c tio n
T h e p ro c e ss o f b e h a v in g , w h ic h m a y b e e x e m p lifie d b y th e p ro c e sse s o f b re a th in g ,
d re a m in g , sm ilin g , e tc .
5 . V e rb a l F u n c tio n
T h e p ro c e ss o f sa y in g .
6 . E x iste n tia l F u n c tio n
T h e p ro c e ss o f e x p re ssin g th a t so m e th in g e x ists o r h a p p e n s .
A c c o rd in g to H a llid a y (in S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 6 0 ), th e fra m e w o rk o f th e p ro c e ss sta tu s, a s se t
u p in th e c la u se g ra m m a r is th a t a p ro c e ss c o n sists, in p rin c ip le , o f th re e c o m p o n e n ts:
1 .) T h e p r o c e s s i t s e l f
It is ty p ic a lly re a liz e d b y a v e rb o r a v e rb a l g ro u p .
2 .) P a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e p r o c e s s
It is ty p ic a lly re a liz e d b y a n o u n o r n o m in a l g ro u p .
3 .) C i r c u m s t a n c e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p r o c e s s
It is ty p ic a lly b y a n a d v e rb ia l g ro u p o r p re p o sitio n a l g ro u p /p h ra se .
R e g a rd in g
to
M a g a zin e , H o rn b y
(1 9 7 4 : 5 1 1 ) say s
th a t it is p a p e r -c o v e re d (u su a lly
w e e k ly o r m o n th ly , a n d illu stra te d ) p e rio d ic a l, w ith sto rie s, a rtic le s, e tc b y v a rio u s w rite rs.
H o rn b y (1 9 7 4 : 4 3 ) sta te s th a t A rtic le is a p ie c e o f w ritin g , c o m p le te in o n e se lf, in a
n e w sp a p e r o r th e o th e r p e rio d ic a l.
R e a d e r’s D ig e st M a g a zin e is a m o n th ly m a g a z in e . It w a s fo u n d e d in 1 9 2 2 b y L ila B e ll
W a lla c e a n d D e w itt W a lla c e . It is in N e w
Y o rk . A lth o u g h its c irc u la tio n h a s d e fin e d in re c e n t
y e a rs, th e A u d it B u re a u o f C irc u la tio n sa y s R e a d e r’s D ig e st M a g a zin e is still th e b e st se llin g
c o n su m e r m a g a z in e in th e U S A , w ith a c irc u la tio n o f o v e r 1 0 m illio n c o p ie s in th e U n ite d S ta te s,
a n d a re a d e rsh ip o f 3 8 m illio n a s m e a su re d b y M e d ia m a rk R e se a rc h (M R I). A c c o rd in g to M R I,
R e a d e r ’ s D i g e s t M a g a z i n e r e a c h e s m o r e r e a d e r s w i t h h o u s e h o l d i n c o m e s o f $ 1 0 0 .0 0 0 t h a n o t h e r
m a g a z in e s. T h e M a g a z in e is c o m p a c t, w ith its p a g e s ro u g h ly h a lf th e s iz e o f m o st A m e ric a n
m a g a z i n e s . A c c e s s e d a t h t t p / / w w w .w i k i p e d i a .c o m / A u g u s t 2 3 , 2 0 0 8 ; 2 0 .1 5 p m .
In
th is
th e sis, I a m
fu n c tio n s o r n o t in
g o in g
to
a n a ly z e , to
fin d
o u t if th e re a re a n y th e e x p e rie n tia l
R e a d e r’s D ig e st M a g a zin e ’ s S e le c te d A rtic le s. I c h o o se
R e a d e r’s D ig e st
M a g a zin e o f th e 2 0 0 3 ‟s e d itio n sin c e I k n e w th a t th is c o m p a c t – siz e m a g a z in e lo o k s so u n iq u e
a n d fu ll o f v a rio u s te x ts fo r re se a rc h p u rp o se s.
1 .2 P r o b l e m s o f t h e A n a l y s i s
In a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e title o f th is th e sis, th e re a re tw o q u e stio n s to b e ra ise d
th a t
m o tiv a te m e to d o th is a n a ly sis:
1 . W h a t e x p e rie n tia l fu n c tio n s a re in R e a d e r’s D ig e st M a g a zin e ‟s S e le c te d A rtic le s?
2 . W h ic h fu n c tio n is th e m o st fre q u e n t in R e a d e r’s D ig e st M a g a zin e ‟s S e le c te d
A rtic le s?
1 .3 O b j e c t i v e s o f t h e A n a l y s i s
T h e o b je c tiv e s o f th e th e sis a re :
1 . T o fin d o u t th e e x p e rie n tia l fu n c tio n s o c c u rre d in R e a d e r’s D ig e st M a g a zin e ‟s
S e le c te d A rtic le s.
2 . T o id e n tify th e m o st fre q u e n t fu n c tio n o c c u rre d in R e a d e r’s D ig e st M a g a zin e ‟s
S e le c te d A rtic le s.
1 .4 S c o p e o f t h e A n a l y s i s
T h e a n a ly sis o n ly fo c u se s in th e e x p e rie n tia l fu n c tio n s in R e a d e r’s D ig e st M a g a zin e ‟s
S e le c te d A rtic le s.
1 .5 S i g n i f i c a n c e s o f t h e A n a l y s i s
It is e x p e c te d th a t th is th e sis c o n trib u te so m e th in g fru itfu l fo r th e re a d e rs a s fo llo w s:
1 . A ssistin g th e le a rn e rs o f D isc o u rse A n a ly sis to fin d o u t th e m o st fre q u e n t fu n c tio n
ty p e in th e o th e r m a g a z in e .
2 . B e in g a s o n e o f th e re fe re n c e s in a n a ly z in g fu n c tio n ty p e u sin g e x p e rie n tia l
fu n c tio n in th e a rtic le .
3 . E x p a n d in g th e w rite r‟s u n d e rsta n d in g a b o u t D isc o u rse A n a ly sis e sp e c ia lly a b o u t
th e e x p e rie n tia l fu n c tio n s.
R E V IE W
O F R E L A T E D
L IT E R A T U R E
A N D T H E O R E T IC A L F R A M E W O R K
2 .1 A n O v e r v i e w o f D i s c o u r s e A n a l y s i s
D isc o u rse a n a ly sis is n o t a sim p le fie ld o f stu d y . It c o v e rs th e u se o f la n g u a g e , sp o k e n
a n d w ritte n , in th e re a l c o m m u n ic a tio n . D isc o u rse a n a ly sis in its e v e ry d a y p ra c tic e d e a ls w ith
te x ts
as
h e te ro g e n e o u s
as
a d v e rtise m e n ts,
b io lo g ic a l
research
a rtic le s,
p o lic e
in te rv ie w s,
n e w sp a p e r e d ito ria ls, a n d life sto rie s.
In o rd e r n o t to b e w ro n g in th e u sa g e o f d isc o u rse a n d te x t, th e re a re so m e d e fin itio n s b y
th e e x p e rts o f lin g u istic s:
H a llid a y &
H a sa n (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 7 ) sa y th a t te x t is th e u n it o f th e la n g u a g e
u sa g e . It‟s n o t th e g ra m m a tic a l u n it lik e c la u se a n d se n te n c e ; a n d it‟s n o t d e fin e d b y fo llo w in g its
le n g th ” . In d isc o u rse a n a ly sis, th e w o rd te x t g e n e ra lly , re fe rs to th e re c o rd o f situ a tio n p ro c e ss
(d isc o u rsa l a c c o rd in g to G re g o ry (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 7 ) in v o lv e d w ith o u t a n y lim ita tio n o n la n g u a g e
sy ste m s.
H a llid a y ‟s v ie w
fro m
(in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 7 )
show
th a t a te x t u se s la n g u a g e w h e re its so u rc e is
o ra l a n d w ritte n m e d ia s w ith o u t a n y lim ita tio n s, w h ic h fo rm s th e w h o le u n its, th e u n it o f
la n g u a g e u sa g e ; n o t g ra m m a tic a l u n it lik e c la u se a n d se n te n c e ; a n d is n o t d e fin e d b a se d o n its
le n g th ; h a s a u n ity o r te x tu re w h ic h d iffe r s it fro m th e o n e w h ic h is n o t a te x t a n d it in v o lv e s th e
se m a n tic
re la tio n
referred
to
w h ic h
is
c a lle d
as
C o h e sio n
and
C o h eren ce
in
an
ex p ressed
m e a n in g , it‟s n o t o n ly in C O N T E N T /F O R M , b u t th e W H O L E c h o ic e o f th e so u rc e o f la n g u a g e
se m a n tic s.
S in a r (2 0 0 8 : 7 ) c ite s a s a la n g u a g e u n it, a te x t c o n sists o f sig n a ls a n d re p re se n tin g th e
a c tio n s u n d e rg o n e b y th e h u m a n b e in g s o r m e a n in g fu l o b je c ts a n d situ a tio n s, th e sy m b o ls w h ic h
c o n stru c t T H E C O N T E N T /F O R M
a n d p ro d u c e th e stru c tu re a n d h a v e th e u n ity o f te x tu re . T h e
te x tu re o f th e te x t p ro d u c e s a c o h e siv e a n d c o h e re n c e m e ssa g e . T h e a sp e c t o f c o h e sio n a n d
te x tu a l c o h e re n c e p la y s o n im p o rta n t ro le w h ic h sh o w
th e u n ity o f d isc o u rse in la n g u a g e a n d
m a rk th e re la tio n o f th e te x t sim u lta n e o u sly a s a p o te n tia l w h ic h is u se d b y th e sp e a k e r a n d
d isc o u rse w rite r.
S tilla r, G (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 8 ) sa y s th a t te x t sh o w s a k in d o f u n ity o r te x tu re w h ic h g iv e s th e
c a p a b ility to th e te x t w h ic h is n o tic e d so c ia lly a s so m e th in g in t a c t. T e x t is b o u n d a n d tie d u p a n d
as
a
m eans
p ro d u ced . T h e
fu n c tio n
is
b rin g in g
to g e th e r
th e
se p a ra te d
p a rts. T e x t h a s
th e
m e a n in g fu l u n it, a n d it is th e a u th o rity o f th e so u rc e o f m e a n in g m a k e r in c lu d e d th e so u rc e o f
“ m a te ria l” w h ic h h a s a q u a lity , su c h a s v o ic e q u a lity fo r a n o ra l te x t o r d ra ft o f a w ritte n te x t.
T h e id e n tific a tio n o f te x t c a n b e a c c o m p lish e d th ro u g h th e to g e th e rn e ss o f te x t su b sta n c e w h ic h
is a sso c ia te d b y th e so c ia l a g e n ts in v a rio u s situ a tio n s.
K re ss (in S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 2 3 ) sa y s th a t “ D isc o u rse is a c a te g o ry th a t b e lo n g s to a n d d e riv e s
fro m
th e L in g u istic d o m a in . T h e re la tio n b e tw e e n th e tw o is o n e o f re a liz a tio n : D isc o u rse fin d s
its e x p re ssio n in te x t. H o w e v e r, th is is n e v e r a stra ig h t fo rw a rd re la tio n ; a n y o n te x t m a y b e th e
e x p re ssio n o r re a liz a tio n o f a n u m b e r o f so m e tim e s c o m p e tin g a n d c o n tra d ic to ry d isc o u rse s” .
S in a r (2 0 0 8 : 8 ) sa y s th a t te x t is ju st lik e a liv e th in g o n la n g u a g e le v e l a n d te x t is a lso a s a
s e m a n t i c u n i t t h a t i s t h e s o u r c e o f m e a n i n g m a k e r , i t c a n r e a l i z e t h e m e a n i n g w h i c h i s c o n t r o l le d b y
th e d isc o u rse m e a n ing . A s a m a tte r o f fa c t, m o rp h e m e , w o rd , p h ra se , a n d c la u se re a liz e a w o rd in g
w h ic h is c o n tro lle d b y th e g ra m m a r a n d le x ic o n . P h o n e m e re a liz e s th e so u n d (p h o n o lo g y ) a n d
re a liz e s g ra p h e m e /a le tte r (g ra p h o lo g y ). T h e a n a ly sis o f te x t c a n b e d o n e in th e le v e l b e lo w te x t
t h a t i s i n v e s t i g a tin g s o m e a s p e c t s , s u c h a s : g r a p h e m e / p h o n e m e , m o r p h e m e , w o r d , p h r a s e , c l a u s e
t h a t i s v e r t i c a l ly t o t h e b o t t o m t h a t i s a n a l y z i n g t h e l i n g u i s t i c v a r i a b l e s . N e x t , w e c a n a n a l y z e t h e
t e x t v e r t i c a l ly t o t h e t o p b y i n v e s t i g a tin g t h e c o n t e x t v a r i a b l e s t h a t i s c o n t e x t s o f s i t u a t i o n , c u l t u r e ,
a n d id e o lo g y . T h e v a ria b le th a t still e x ists a b o v e th e te x t in te ra c ts o r in flu e n c e s e a c h o th e r w ith th e
t e x t . A l l t h e v a r i a b l e s o f c o n t e x t s a r e f o u n d i n t h e t e x t , t h e v a r i a b l e s o f l i n g u i s t ic s a r e a l s o f o u n d i n
th e te x t a n d g lo b a lly a ll th e p o te n tia ls a re a n a ly z e d d e p e n d in g o n th e n e e d s o r a im
w h ic h is
in te n d e d b y th e re se a rc h e r a n d h o w fa r th e re le v a n c e o r th e in v o lv e m e n t o f v a ria b le in w h ic h w ill
b e search ed .
F ro m
L in g u istic
m e n tio n e d
th o se d e fin itio n s o f d isc o u rse a n d te x t, I a g re e w ith th e e x p e rts o f th e S y ste m ic
T h eo ry
th a t
lik e
K re ss, H a llid a y , a n d
d isc o u rse
is
a
so c ia l
S tilla r
d o m a in
and
as
te x t
e m p h a siz e d
b e lo n g s
to
(in
S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 8 ) w h o
lin g u istic
d o m a in . T h e
d isc o u rse a n d te x t, o f c o u rse , h a v e se p a ra te d d o m a in s; n e v e rth e le ss th e re la tio n b e tw e e n te x t
a n d d isc o u rse is a re a liz a tio n . In a d d itio n , d isc o u rse m o v e s a c tiv e ly a n d c a n d o so m e th in g in th e
re a l c o n te x t w h ic h d e te rm in e s th e so c ia l life . T h e d i sc o u rse is c lo se ly re la te d to th e c o n te x ts o f
situ a tio n , c u ltu re , a n d id e o lo g y .
2 .2 S y s t e m i c F u n c t i o n a l L i n g u i s t i c s T h e o r y
Language
th e o ry h a s v a rio u s w a y s in se e in g a la n g u a g e p h e n o m e n o n . T h e se th e o rie s
sp re a d fa st a n d b e c o m e m o re so p h istic a te d in its d e v e lo p m e n t in so c ie ty . T h e o ry o f S y ste m ic
L in g u istic F u n c tio n a l th e n sta n d s fo r S F L T is o n e o f a lin g u istic th e o ry w h e re its p h ilo g e n e tic
d e v e lo p m e n t in la n g u a g e a s th e p h e n o m e n o n sin c e F irth a g e in 2 0
th
c e n tu ry w h o h a s le d h is
p e o p le c a lle d lin g u istic p e o p le . T h e fa c t sh o w s th a t fo r m a n y y e a rs, S F L T fo c u s its re se a rc h a n d
a c a d e m ic a c tiv itie s to w a rd s la n g u a g e , te x t, d isc o u rse , a n d c o n te x ts, to m a k e a th e o ry , to b e a
m o d e l to d e sc rib e , a n d to e x p la in th e th e o rie s fo r th e v a rio u s n e e d s a n d p u rp o se s. In fe rre d fro m
th is h isto ric a l b a c k g ro u n d , d isc o u rse a n a ly sis is c o n c e rn e d w ith th e stu d y o f th e re la tio n sh ip
b e tw e e n la n g u a g e a n d th e c o n te x ts in w h ic h it is u se d . It g re w o u t o f w o rk in d iffe re n t d isc ip lines
in th e 1 9 6 0 s a n d e a rly 1 9 7 0 s, in c lu d in g lin g u istic s, se m io tic s, p sy c h o lo g y , a n th ro p o lo g y , a n d
so c io lo g y . D isc o u rse a n a ly sts stu d y la n g u a g e in u se , w ritte n te x t o f a ll k in d s, a n d sp o k e n d a ta ,
fro m
c o n v e rsa tio n to h ig h ly in stitu tio n a liz e d fo rm s o f ta lk . D isc o u rse a n a ly sis h a s g ro w n in to a
w id e ra n g in g a n d h e te ro g e n e o u s d isc ip lin e w h ic h fin d s its u n ity in th e d e sc rip tio n o f la n g u a g e
a b o v e th e se n te n c e a n d a n in te re st in th e c o n te x ts a n d c u ltu ra l in flu e n c e s w h ic h a ffe c t la n g u a g e
in
u se. It
co n cern s
w ith
la n g u a g e , id e o lo g y , a n d
w id e r
c o n te x t, a n a ly z in g
p o w e r, d isc o u rse
in
la n g u a g e
w h ic h
ad d ress
in v o lv e m e n t o f
so c io -c u ltu ra l c h a n g e , a n a ly sis
o f d isc o u rse in
d iffe re n t fie ld o f sc ie n c e s, a n d c ritic a l la n g u a g e a w a re n e ss. T h e la te st d e v e lo p m e n t is u n d e r th e
i n f l u e n c e o f N o r m a n F a i r c l o u g h ( i n R e f n a l d y , d k k , 2 0 0 6 : 6 .2 2 ) .
S y ste m ic F u n c tio n a l T h e o ry h a s a b ig n o tic e th ro u g h th e re la tio n b e tw e e n la n g u a g e a n d
c o n te x t. F o r so m e te n y e a rs, S y ste m ic F u n c tio n a l T h e o ry h a s a v ie w
la n g u a g e
can
be
illu stra te d
in
a
w ay
th a t
re la te s
to
th e
re la tio n
th a t a n a c tiv ity o f u sin g
one
d isc o u rse
w ith
o th e r
d isc o u rse , u n til it b e c o m e s a d isc o u rse w h ic h h a s a c o m p o sitio n o f g ra m m a r, a fte rw a rd s, th e
w h o le o f th e d isc o u rse is sta te d in b y rh y th m a n d in to n a tio n .
E a c h c la u se h a s a fu n c tio n a n d m e a n in g fu l, th e y a re : m e a n in g s o r fu n c tio n s o f id e a tio n a l,
in te rp e rso n a l, a n d te x tu a l. In a c la u se , th e re a re so m e u n its, th e y a re g ro u p o r p h ra se . T h e y a re
lo w e r th a n th e c la u se . I n S y ste m ic F u n c tio n a l T h e o ry , a te rm
g ro u p o r p h ra se is a s a u n it o f
g ra m m a r h a v in g a d iffe re n c e . In o th e r w o rd s, a g ro u p o r p h ra se is e x p a n sio n . A u n it o f w o rd s is
fo u n d in a g ro u p o r p h ra se . A u n it o f w o rd s c o n ta in s a m o rp h e m e . A w o rd is a u n it o f g ra m m a r
a s th e e le m e n t o f a g ro u p o r p h ra se b u ild e r a n d a m o rp h e m e is a u n it o f g ra m m a r w h ic h b u ild s a
w o rd . T h e n , b a se d o n S y ste m ic F u n c tio n a l T h e o ry , a se n te n c e is n o t th e u n it o f la n g u a g e b u t, it
is th e u n it o f w ritte n la n g u a g e th a t it is sta rte d w ith a c a p it a l le tte r a n d e n d e d w ith a fu ll sto p . F o r
in sta n c e , sh e g e ts a n g ry w ith y o u (S in a r, 2 0 0 3 : 1 3 -1 8 ), fo r in sta n c e : n o u n g ro u p o r n o u n p h ra se
(th e u g ly g irl) v e rb g ro u p o r v e rb p h ra se (h a s c o m e , w ill c o m e ), a d v e rb g ro u p o r a d v e rb p h ra se
(v e ry b e a u tifu l). O n th e c o n tra ry , a p h ra se is a d e c re a sin g o f c la u se , su c h a s: p re p o sitio n p h ra se
(at h o m e).
P i c t u r e 1 .1 U n i t o f L a n g u a g e G r a m m a r
C la u se
G ro u p /P h ra se
W o rd
M o rp h em e
2 .2 .1 T e x t u a l F r a m e w o r k
A
te x t is tra d itio n a lly u n d e rsto o d
to b e a p ie c e o f w ritte n la n g u a g e . A
ra th e r b ro a d e r
c o n c e p tio n h a s b e c o m e c o m m o n w ith in d isc o u rse a n a ly sis w h e re a te x t m a y b e e ith e r w ritte n o r
sp o k e n d isc o u rse . In c u ltu ra l a n a ly sis, b y c o n tra st, te x t d o e s n o t n e e d to b e la n g u a g e a t a ll: a n y
c u ltu ra l a rtifa c t –
p ic tu re , a b u ild in g , m u sic
– c a n b e se e n a s a te x t. A
te x t in c o n te m p o ra ry
s o c i e t y i s i n c r e a s i n g l y m u l t i - s e m io t ic ; t e x t w h o s e p r i m a r y s e m i o t i c f o r m i s l a n g u a g e i n c r e a s i n g ly
c o m b in e s la n g u a g e w ith o th e r se m io tic fo rm . T h e re a re 2 k in d s o f te x t (R e fn a ld y , d k k , 2 0 0 6 :
6 .2 4 - 6 .2 5 ) :
a.
S p o k e n te x ts
The
p ro b le m s
c o m m u n ic a tiv e
e n c o u n te re d
w ith
th e
n o tio n
of
te x t
as
th e
v erb al
reco rd
of
a
a c t b e c o m e a g o o d d e a l m o re c o m p le x w h e n w e c o n sid e r w h a t is m e a n t b y
sp o k e n te x t. T h e sim p le st v ie w to a ssu m e is th a t a ta p e -re c o rd in g o f a c o m m u n ic a tiv e a c t w ill
p re se rv e th e „te x t‟ a s w e ll a s th e e x tra n e o u s to th e te x t (c o u g h in g , c h a irs c re a k in g , b u se s g o in g
p a st, lig h tin g a c ig a re tte ). In g e n e ra l, d isc o u rse a n a ly st w o rk s w ith a ta p e re c o rd in g o f a n e v e n t
fro m
w h ic h s h e th e n m a k e s a w ritte n tra n sc rip tio n , a n n o ta te d a c c o rd in g to h e r in te re st o n a
p a rtic u la r o c c a sio n . S h e h a s to d e te rm in e w h a t c o n stitu te s th e v e rb a l e v e n t, a n d w h a t fo rm w ill
tra n sc rib e it in . H o w e v e r, it m u st b e fu rth e r n o tic e d th a t, h o w e v e r o b je c tiv e th e n o tio n o f „te x t‟
m a y a p p e a r a s w e h a v e d e fin e d it, th e p e rc e p tio n a n d in te rp re ta tio n o f e a c h te x t is e sse n tia lly
su b je c tiv e . D iffe re n t in d iv id u a ls p a y a tte n tio n to d iffe re n t a sp e c ts o f te x t. H o w e v e r, in d isc u ssin g
te x ts w e id e a liz e a w a y fro m
th is v a ria b i lity o f th e e x p e rie n c in g o f th e te x t a n d a ssu m e th a t
re a d e rs o f a te x t o r liste n e r to a te x t sh a re th e sa m e e x p e rie n c e . A te x t fre q u e n tly h a s a m u c h
w id e r v a rie ty o f in te rp re ta tio n s im p o se d u p o n it b y a n a ly sts stu d y in g it. O n c e th e a n a ly st h a s
c re a te d a w ritte n tra n sc rip tio n fro m a re c o rd e d sp o k e n v e rsio n , th e w ritte n te x t is a v a ila b le to h e r
in ju st th e w a y th e lite ra ry te x t is a v a ila b le to th e lite ra ry c ritic . W h e n w e d isc u ss sp o k e n te x t, it
is im p o rta n t to re m e m b e r th e tra n sito rin e ss o f th e o rig in a l.
It
m ust
be
c le a r
th a t
our
sim p le
d e fin itio n
of
„te x t‟
as
„th e
v erb al
reco rd
of
c o m m u n ic a tiv e a c t‟ re q u ire s a t le a st tw o h e d g e s: th e re p re se n ta tio n o f a te x t w h ic h is p re se n te d
fo r d isc u ssio n m a y in p a rt c o n sists o f a p rio r a n a ly sis o r in te rp re ta tio n o f a f ra g m e n t o f d isc o u rse
a n d fe a tu re s o f th e o rig in a l p ro d u c tio n o f th e la n g u a g e .
b . W ritte n T e x ts
A
te x t m a y b e d iffe re n tly p re se n te d in d iffe re n t e d itio n s, w ith d iffe re n t ty p e -fa c e , o n
d iffe re n t six e s o f p a p e r, in o n e o r tw o c o lu m n s. It is im p o rta n t to c o n sid e r ju st w h a t it is th a t is
„th e sa m e ‟. M in im a lly th e w o rd s sh o u ld b e th e sa m e w o rd s, p re se n te d in th e sa m e o rd e r.
T h e d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n sp o k e n a n d w ritte n te x t:
a.
The
sy n ta x
of
spoken
la n g u a g e
is
ty p ic a lly
m uch
le ss
stru c tu re d
th a n
th a t
of
w ritte n
la n g u a g e : sp o k e n la n g u a g e c o n ta in s m a n y in c o m p le te se n te n c e s, o fte n sim p ly se q u e n c e s o f
p h rases, sp o k en
la n g u a g e
ty p ic a lly c o n ta in s ra th e r little su b o rd in a tio n , in c o n v e rsa tio n a l
sp e e c h , a c tiv e d e c la ra tiv e fo rm s a re n o rm a lly fo u n d .
b.
In w ritte n la n g u a g e a n e x te n siv e se t o f m e ta lin g u a l m a rk e rs e x ists to m a rk re la tio n sh ip s
b e tw e e n c la u se s (lo g ic a l c o n n e c to r s). T h e sp e a k e r is le ss e x p lic it th a n a w rite r.
c.
In w ritte n la n g u a g e , ra th e r h e a v ily p re m o d ifie d n o u n p h ra se s a re q u ite c o m m o n – it is ra re in
sp o k e n la n g u a g e .
d.
W h e re a s w ritte n la n g u a g e se n te n c e s a re g e n e ra lly stru c tu re d in su b je c t -p re d ic a te
fo rm , in sp o k e n la n g u a g e it is q u ite c o m m o n to fin d to p ic -c o m m e n t stru c tu re .
e.
In in fo rm a l sp e e c h , th e o c c u rre n c e o f p a ssiv e c o n stru c tio n is re la tiv e ly in fre q u e n t.
f.
In c h a t a b o u t th e im m e d ia te e n v iro n m e n t, th e sp e a k e r m a y re la y o n g a z e d ire c tio n to su p p ly a
re fe re n t.
g.
T h e sp e a k e r m a y re p la c e o r re fin e e x p re ssio n a s sh e g o e s a lo n g .
h.
T h e sp e a k e r ty p ic a lly u se s a g o o d d e a l o f ra th e r g e n e ra liz e d v o c a b u la ry .
i.
T h e sp e a k e r fre q u e n tly re p e a ts th e sa m e sy n ta c tic fo rm se v e ra l tim e s.
j.
T h e sp e a k e r m a y p ro d u c e a la rg e n u m b e r o f p re fa b ric a te d fille r: w e ll, e rm , I th in k , y o u k n o w ,
if y o u se e w h a t I m e a n , o f c o u rse , a n d so o n .
D isc o u rse
a n a ly sis
in
its
ev ery d ay
a d v e rtise m e n ts, b io lo g ic a l re se a rc h
p ra c tic e
a rtic le s, p o lic e
d e a ls
w ith
te x ts
as
h e te ro g e n e o u s
as
in te rv ie w , n e w sp a p e r e d ito ria ls, a n d life
sto rie s.
F u rth e rm o re , siz e is n o t p rin c ip le in e x c lu d in g te x ts fro m
a n a ly sis sin c e te x t m a y h a v e
v a rie s in le n g th . T h e re a re , o f c o u rse , th e o re tic a l a n d p ra c tic a l c o n sid e ra tio n s re la te d to siz e . F irst
o f a ll, th e re is th e issu e o f lim its o f te x t a s a u n it; d isc o u rse a n a ly sis is b a se d o n a n a ly z in g a te x t
a s a n e n tity , a u n it fro m
b e g in n in g to a n e n d . T h e in c re a sin g sp re a d s o f c o m p u te r te c h n o lo g y is
a lso b o u n d to in flu e n c e c o n c e p tio n o f te x t a n d re d e fin e its lim it. F ro m a p ra c tic a l p o i n t o f v ie w ,
th e re a re d iffic u ltie s in th e a n a ly sis a n d p re se n ta tio n o f re su lts re la te d to v e ry la rg e te x ts. A s a
re su lt, m o st a p p lic a tio n s h a v e b e e n lim ite d to ra th e r sm a ll te x t – a lth o u g h th e re is a w h o le ra n g e
of
v ery
sm a ll
te x t
th a t
have
not been
stu d ie d : a n sw e rin g -m a c h in e
ta lk ,
e -m a il m a ssa g e s,
h e a d l i n e s a n d c a p t i o n s , s m a l l a d s , e t c , ( R e f n a l d y , d k k 2 0 0 6 : 6 .2 4 - 6 .2 8 ) .
2 .2 .2 C o n t e x t u a l F r a m e w o r k
A t t h e l e v e l o f c o n t e x t ( i .e . s y s t e m s o f h i g h e r - le v e l m e a n i n g ), i n v i e w o f t h i s s t u d y t h e r e a r e
s t r a t a l ly f o u r b r o a d c o n te x tu a l ( c o n n o t a t i v e ) s e m i o t i c s y s t e m s : r e l i g i o u s , i d e o l o g i c a l , c u l t u r a l a n d
s i t u a ti o n a l . A n y a s p e c t s o f h i g h e r - l e v e l m e a n i n g a n d s y s t e m s o f h i g h e r - l e v e l m e a n i n g w i t h i n t h e
c o n t e x t u a l s t r a ti fic a ti o n d i m e n s i o n u n d e r d i s c u s s io n a r e i n p r i n c ip le r e l e v a n t a n d p o t e n t i a l l y c r i t i c a l
fo r in v e stig a tio n , e x trin sic a lly a n d fu n c tio n a lly , a t th e le v e l o f c o n te x t, th e d iffe re n t m o d e s o f
m e a n in g c a n b e d iv e rsifie d in to fo u r b ro a d c o n te x tu a l m o d e s o f m e a n in g : re lig io u s, id e o lo g ic a l,
c u l t u r a l a n d s i t u a tio n a l. F o l lo w in g t h e S F L T f r a m e w o r k , t h e s i t u a t i o n a l m o d e o f m e a n i n g s c a n b e
d iv e rsifie d in to tw o m a jo r d im e n sio n s: th e d ia le c ta l a n d th e d ia ty p ic , a sp e c ts o f th e la tte r b e in g
id e n tifia b le
th ro u g h
th e
situ a tio n a l (d isc o u rsa l) v a ria b le s
o f fie ld , te n o r a n d m o d e . M o v in g
d o w n w a rd s, th e se v a ria b le s le a d to th e p h a sa l m o d e o f m e a n in g . A n y a sp e c ts o f d iv e rsifie d
c o n te x tua l m o d e s o f m e a n ing a n d sy ste m s o f d iv e rsifie d c o n te x tu a l m o d e s o f m e a n in g w ith in th e
c o n t e x t u a l d i v e rs i fic a t io n d i m e n s i o n u n d e r d i s c u s s io n a r e i n p r i n c ip le r e le v a n t a n d p o t e n tia lly c r i tic a l
fo r in v e stig a tio n , (S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 9 ).
T h e r e s e a rc h e r h a s t r ie d t o s h o w g l o b a l ly t h e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s a n d d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e o v e r a l l
s e m i o ti c s p a c e o f l a n g u a g e - in c o n t e x t i n a n a t t e m p t t o s e t t h e l e c t u re d i s c o u r s e -in t e x ts u n d e r s t u d y in
a
c o n te x t o f th e o re tic a l u n d e rp in n in g . A
c o m p re h e n siv e a c c o u n t o f d isc o u rse p h e n o m e n a in
c o n t e x t u a lly m o t iv a te d l i n g u is ti c t e x ts i n g e n e r a l i s o n e t h a t t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t a l l t h e c o n t e x t u a l a n d
lin g u istic a sp e c ts a n d d im e n sio n s o f th e o v e ra l l la n g u a g e -in -c o n te x t c o m p le x , (S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 1 3 ).
S F L T w o rk s o n „la n g u a g e -in -c o n te x t‟ a re a v a ila b le in a g re a t v a rie ty o f fo rm s (b o o k s,
c o n g re ss/c o n fe re n c e
e x p lo re
d iffe re n t
p ro c e e d in g s,
w ays
of
jo u rn a ls,
in te rp re tin g
c o m p u te riz e d
th in g s
th e o re tic a lly
and
in te rn e t
such
as
p ro g ram s,
e t c .) .
To
te x t, te x tu re , c o h e sio n ,
c o h e re n c e , d isc o u rse , re g iste r, g e n re , c o n te x t, situ a tio n , c u ltu re , id e o lo g y a n d o th e r re le v a n t
p h e n o m e n a a n d to sp e c ify th e th e o re tic a l sig n ific a n c e th e y d e riv e fro m th e lo c a tio n in th e o v e ra ll
S F L T re fe re n c e s o n th e n o tio n s o f su c h te rm s a re tra c e a b le th ro u g h th o se so u rc e s. W h ic h a re
c irc u la te d w o rld w id e . M a tth ie sse n (in S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 2 5 ).
S F L T v ie w s th a t th e stu d y o f la n g u a g e a lw a y s m e a n s a stu d y o f o v e ra ll la n g u a g e re la te d
to
its
stu d y
of
o v e ra ll c o n te x t in w h ic h la n g u a g e is u se d . C o n se q u e n tly , it stu d ie s n o t o n ly
la n g u a g e a s su c h b u t a lso m a n y o th e r th in g s th a t a re a ro u n d , a b o v e a n d b e y o n d la n g u a g e b u t
th e y h a v e re le v a n c e to it, (S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 4 5 ).
In g e n e ra l te rm s, th e m o d e ls d e v e lo p a s w a y s o f c r itic a lly u n d e rsta n d in g la n g u a g e a n d
c o n t e x t ( i n c l u d i n g t h e c o n c e p t s o f s o - c a l l e d t e x t , d i s c o u r s e , r e g i s t e r , e t c .) , t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r
re la tio n sh ip , a n d th e a sp e c ts, fe a tu re s a n d d im e n sio n s th a t a re in v o lv e d th e re in . W h ile o n e n e e d s
to re la te la n g u a g e to c o n te x t in o rd e r to u n d e rsta n d h o w a n d w h y la n g u a g e m e a n s w h a t it d o e s.
In th is c o n te x t th e re w ill n e v e r b e a n y c le a r -c u t b o u n d a rie s b e tw e e n w h e th e r o n e is in fa c t still
ta lk in g a b o u t la n g u a g e a s a sy ste m a n d p ro c e ss o r o n e is a lre a d y ta lk in g a b o u t c o n te x t (situ a tio n ,
c u l t u r e , i d e o l o g y , e t c .) a s a s y s t e m a n d p r o c e s s . D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t a t t e m p t s t o r e l a t e l a n g u a g e
to
c o n te x t w h e n
M a lin o w sk i (in
S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 4 8 ) in tro d u c e d
th e
te rm s
so -c a lle d
c o n te x t o f
situ a tio n a n d c o n te x t o f c u ltu re . In th is re sp e c t, it is n o t su rp risin g to fin d H a llid a y ‟s re g iste r (in
S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 4 8 ) th a t h e se e s a s so m e th in g lin g u istic b e in g u n d e rsto o d a s so m e th in g c o n te x tu a l
( i .e . s i t u a t i o n a l ) b y o t h e r s .
In th e g lo b a l a n d g e n e ra l m o d e llin g o f la n g u a g e a n d c o n te x t, a ll th e e x istin g m o d e ls o f
G SFLT
g e n e ra lly sh a re th e sa m e c o n c e p tu a l v ie w s. F o r e x a m p le , th e y w o u ld sh a re th e sa m e
v ie w s a s e x p re sse d in sta te m e n ts su c h a s th e se : (1 ) la n g u a g e d o e s n o t liv e in iso la tio n b u t it liv e s
i n e n v i r o n m e n t s , s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t s ( i .e . s o c i a l c o n t e x t s ) , ( 2 ) t o u n d e r s t a n d l a n g u a g e i s t o s e e
how
a n d w h y la n g u a g e m e a n s w h a t it d o e s in so c ia l c o n te x ts, (3 ) to u n d e rsta n d la n g u a g e is to
re la te la n g u a g e to th e so c ia l c o n te x ts in w h ic h it liv e s, (4 ) to u n d e rsta n d la n g u a g e is to se e h o w
la n g u a g e u se rs u se la n g u a g e to ta lk to e a c h o th e r, (5 ) th e re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n la n g u a g e a n d
so c ia l c o n te x ts is o n e o f m u tu a l e n g e n d e rin g : la n g u a g e c o n stru e s th e so c ia l c o n te x ts in w h ic h
la n g u a g e u se rs liv e , a n d it is a t th e sa m e tim e c o n stru e d b y th e so c ia l c o n te x ts, a n d (6 ) th e
re la tio n sh ip is o n e o f re a lisa tio n : la n g u a g e a s a se m io tic sy ste m re a lise s so c ia l c o n te x t a s a so c ia l
sy ste m , (S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 4 9 ).
2 .2 .2 .1 C o n t e x t o f S i t u a t i o n
L a n g u a g e is a so c ia l se m io tic s sy ste m
a n d e x ists in a c o n te x t. A s a se m io tic s sy ste m ,
la n g u a g e so c ia liz e s w ith o th e r se m io tic s sy ste m a n d b o rro w s th e m , su c h a s c o n te x t o f situ a tio n .
The
re la tio n sh ip
b e tw e e n
la n g u a g e
and
th e
c o n te x t
is
a
la n g u a g e
re a liz a tio n
as
th e
so c ia l
se m io tic s sy ste m . In o th e r w o rd s, la n g u a g e is th e e x iste n c e o f so m e th in g in th e c o n te x t a n d th e re
is n o la n g u a g e w ith o u t th e so c ia l c o n te x t (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 5 3 ).
T h e so c ia l c o n te x t sy ste m
is a t th e le v e l o f th e la n g u a g e c o n n o ta tiv e se m io tic s w h ic h
c o n sists o f th e c o n te x ts o f situ a tio n , c u ltu re a n d id e o lo g y so th a t, in in v e stig a tin g th e la n g u a g e ,
a n in te rp re ta tio n w h ic h is fo c u se d o n th e te x t, h a s to n o tic e its so c ia l d o m a in th a t is c o n te x ts o f
situ a tio n (re g iste r), c u ltu re (g e n re ) a n d id e o lo g y . T h e w h o le c o n te x ts re la te s to th e c h a ra c te ristic
o f te x t lin g u istic s (la n g u a g e ). H a llid a y (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 5 3 ) c o n n e c ts th e c o n te x ts o f situ a tio n to 3
fu n c tio n s o f la n g u a g e – d e te rm in e th e sp e a k e r‟s re la tio n , e la b o ra te s th e e x p e rie n c e o f th e sp e a k e r
in so c ia l a c tiv ity , c o m b in e th e a g re e m e n t p ro c e ss, a n d a n a ly z e s a ll c o n te x ts a s a sig n ific a n t
d isc o u rse .
In th e c o n te x t o f situ a tio n ‟s p e rsp e c tiv e , th e te rm
situ a tio n a l a n d “ d isc o u rsa l” c a n b e
u n d e rsto o d a n d in te rp re ta te d b y th e e x p e rt o f sy ste m ic w ith a d iffe re n t w a y . F o r e x a m p le : T h e
noun
fo r
situ a tio n a l
te rm ,
such
as:
“ situ a tio n ” ,
is
used
to
rep resen t
S y ste m ic -F u n c tio n a l
L in g u istic T h e o ry ‟ sp a c e o f c o n c e p t se m io tic s “ c o n te x t o f situ a tio n ” o r re g iste r a s a v a rie ty in
la n g u a g e o r re g iste r.
A c c o rd in g to H a llid a y a n d G re g o ry (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 5 3 ) re g iste r h a s 2 m a in d im e n sio n s, th a t is
(1 ) se m io tic s d im e n sio n “ d ia le c tic a l” , a n d (2 ) se m io tic s d im e n sio n “ d ia tip ic ” . In th is o c c a ssio n ,
d ia le c tic a l
d im e n sio n
c o n sists
of
“ la n g u a g e
in
c o n te x t
based
on
th e
u ser”
o r w h ic h
has
a
c o n c e p tu a l c a te g o ry , su c h a s: d ia le c ts o f so c ia l, g e o g ra p h ic a l, v a rie ty o f su b -c u ltu ra l (s ta n d a rd
a n d n o n sta n d a rd la n g u a g e s), la n g u a g e v a ria b le (c a ste , so c ia l c la ss, a g e , se x , e tc ) w h ic h in c lu d e s
in so c io lin g u istic s d isc u ssio n .
W h ereas
u sag e‟, o r as
a
th e
w ay
d im e n sio n
c o n v e y in g
of
th e
d ia tip ic , c o n sists
language. T he
o f „la n g u a g e -in
la n g u a g e
v a rie ty
is
c o n te x t b a se d
seen
fro m
on
th e
se m a n tic s
k n o w le d g e ‟s a n d re a liz e d th ro u g h th e le x ic o g ra m m a tic a , th e re is a c o n c e p tu a l c a te g o ry „fie ld o f
d isc o u rse ‟, te n o r o f d isc o u rse , a n d m o d e o f d isc o u rse .
In re g iste r d isc u ssio n , c o m p o n e n t p la c e m e n t o f fu n c tio n a l te n o r o f d isc o u rse a n d th e
m o d e o f d isc o u rse . G re g o ry (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 5 4 ) d isc u sse s fu n c tio n a l te n o r o f d isc o u rse th a t re fe rs
to p h a tic , e x p o sitio n , d id a c tic , p e rsu a siv e , o rd e r a n d n a rra tio n . T h u s, H a llid a y a n d H a sa n (in
S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 5 4 ) d isc u ss th e c o m p o n e n t o f a rh e to ric a l m o d e th a t re fe rs to th e a im w h ic h w ill b e
re a c h e d b y th e te x t th a t c a n b e d iffe re n t, b u t it d e p e n d s o n th e c h a ra c te ristic s o f te x t (p e rsu a siv e ,
e x p o sitio n , d id a c tic , a n d o th e rs). B y fo llo w in g S y ste m ic F u n c tio n a l L in g u istic s, th e fu n c tio n o f
la n g u a g e o rg a n iz a tio n in trin sic in te ra c ts w ith th e fu n c tio n o f la n g u a g e o rg a n iz a tio n e x trin sic o f
c o n te x t o f situ a tio n . T h e fie ld o f d isc o u rse h a s a c lo se re la tio n sh ip w ith Id e a tio n a l F u n c tio n , th e
te n o r o f d isc o u rse w ith In te rp e rso n a l F u n c tio n , a n d th e m o d e o f d isc o u rse w ith T e x tu a l F u n c tio n .
T h e d iv isio n o f re g iste r a s a se m io tic s sy ste m o f c o n te x t o f situ a tio n w ith g e n re a s th e se m io tic s
sy ste m
o f c o n te x t o f c u ltu re b rin g s a n im p o rta n t d isc o v e ry in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f S y ste m ic
F u n c tio n a l T h e o ry .
H a llid a y (in S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 4 0 ) u se s th e sa m e te rm
la n g u a g e a s a n a sp e c t o f a se p a ra te
“ re g iste r” to re fe r to fu n c tio n a l v a ria tio n o f
d im e n sio n o f o rg a n iz a tio n w ith in la n g u a g e .
2 .2 .2 .2 C o n t e x t o f C u l t u r e
M a rtin (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 6 4 ) sa y s:
G e n re a re re fe rre d to a s so c ia l p ro c e sse s b e c a u se m e m b e rs o f a c u ltu re in te ra c t w ith
e a c h o th e r to a c h ie v e th e m ; a s g o a l o rie n te d b e c a u se th e y h a v e e v o lv e d to g e t th in g s
does; and
as
sta g e d
because
it u su a lly ta k e s m o re th a n o n e ste p fo r p a rtic ip a n ts to
a c h ie v e th e ir g o a ls.
A c c o rd in g to M a rtin (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 6 6 ), la n g u a g e is a p a rt o f so c ie ty c u ltu re a n d g e n re
is a la n g u a g e h a rm o n y a s a p ro d u c t o f th e so c ie ty c u ltu re . In o th e r w o rd s, a w rite r o r a sp e a k e r
fro m
th e g ro u p o f c u ltu re u se s a la n g u a g e , se ts u p th e in te ra c tio n so c ia lly a n d b e c o m e s th e
p ro d u cer o f g en re.
M a rtin a n d H a sa n (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 6 8 ) sa y th a t th e d iv isio n o f re g iste r a s a se m io tic s
sy ste m o f c o n te x t o f situ a tio n w ith g e n re a s th e se m io tic s sy ste m o f c o n te x t o f c u ltu re b rin g s a n
im p o rta n t d isc o v e ry in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f S y ste m ic F u n c tio n a l T h e o ry .
R e fn a ld y ,
dkk
(2 0 0 6 :
643)
arg u es
th a t
c u ltu re
does
not
e x ist
w ith o u t
d isc o u rse .
D isc o u rse g iv e s stru c tu re a n d c o n te n ts to w h a t w e u n d e rsta n d b y c u ltu re . In th is v ie w , d isc o u rse
a n a ly sis b e c o m e s a n u m b re lla c o n c e p t n o t o n ly fo r te x t stu d ie s, b u t fo r la n g u a g e a n d in te ra c tio n
stu d ie s
in
g e n e ra l.
The
im p a c ts
of
c o n se q u e n c e s. F o r e x a m p le , e v e ry b o d y
a d d re ssin g
w ill a g re e
q u e stio n s
of
o n to lo g y
th a t „c o n te x t‟ is
one
have
fa r -re a c h in g
o f th e m o st c ru c ia l
c o n c e p ts in p ra g m a tic s. H o w e v e r, in c o n te x tu a liz a tio n itse lf is to b e se e n in te rm
o f d isc o u rse ,
th e sta tu s o f a n y p re su m e d c o m m o n d e n o m in a to r fo r u n d e rsta n d in g w ill b e q u e stio n a b le . F u rth e r
re se a rc h in th is fie ld w ill n o d o u b t g iv e u s a b e tte r u n d e rsta n d in g o f n o tio n s lik e v a ria b ility ,
in d e te rm in a c y a n d a m b iv a le n c e .
S in a r (2 0 0 8 : 8 4 ) sa y s th a t in th e c o n te x t o f c u ltu re o f d isc o u rse , th e sc h e m a tic stru c tu re
h a s th e h a rm o n y a lth o u g h th e b a sic sy ste m
is th e b a c k g ro u n d , th e c o n te n t, a n d th e c lo sin g . T h e
h a rm o n y o f sc h e m a tic stru c tu re is a s th e a im th a t is su ita b le w ith th e k in d s o f g e n re . T h e w rite r
o r th e sp e a k e r o f g e n re is p le a se d to b e u n d e rsto o d th e d isc o u rse sc h e m a tic stru c tu re to fu lfill
th e ir n e e d s b e fo re th e p ro c e ss o f d isc o u rse w ritin g b e g in s. S o th a t, th e w ritin g o f d isc o u rse is
su ita b le w ith th e n e e d s th a t c a n re a c h th e ta rg e t.
2 .2 .2 .3 C o n t e x t o f I d e o l o g y
Id e o lo g y
is
a
b e lie f, th e
v a lu e
th a t
is
obeyed
by
th e
so c ie ty , su c h
a s: Id e o lo g y
of
P a n c a sila , M a rx ism , o th e rs. Id e o lo g y a lso b e c o m e s a so c ia l c o n c e p t w h ic h d e te rm in e s th e v a lu e
in a so c ie ty . In o th e r w o rd s, Id e o lo g y is c o n tro lle d b y a p o w e r o f g ro u p w h ic h d o m in a te s th e
so c ie ty in p o sitiv e m e a n in g . It is sa id a s p o sitiv e b e c a u se th e id e a o r a se t o f v a lu e b e c o m e s th e
w a y s o f so c ie ty in m a n a g in g a n d ju stify in g th e ir life a s th e re p re se n ta tio n in re la tio n sh ip w ith th e
c o n d itio n o f th e ir e x iste n c e in th e so c ie ty .
K re ss (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 8 3 ) sa y s th a t Id e o lo g y c a n b e c re a te d b y th e in flu e n c e o f p o w e r
to w a rd s th e h isto ry o f p o litic s, th e so c ie ty sy ste m , th e v a lu e , lite ra tu re a n d c u ltu re fo rm e d th e
v ie w o f so c ie ty , so th a t b e lie v e th e “ c o n c e p t” .
M a x (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 8 3 ) sa y s th a t Id e o lo g y is a sy ste m w h ic h m isle a d s p u rp o se ly .
B e sid e s th a t, H a sa n (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 8 3 ) c ite s th a t Id e o lo g y is a s a liv e t h in g th ro u g h th e
d a ily
h a b it a c tio n
of a
so c ia l g ro u p
e ith e r a
v erb al o r a
n o n v e rb a l w h ic h is fa r fro m
th e ir
c o n sc io u s m in d to th e th in g s.
K re ss a n d H o d g e (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 8 4 ) sa y th a t a stu d y o f id e o lo g y ta lk s th e re la tio n sh ip
b e tw e e n la n g u a g e w ith th e so c ie ty a n d c u ltu re b e c a u se th e re is a n in flu e n c e o f th e p o litic so c ia l
g u id a n c e . T h e in flu e n c e o f p o w e r to w a rd s th e h isto ry , p o litic s, th e so c ie ty sy ste m , th e v a lu e , th e
lite ra tu re a n d c u ltu re fo rm e d a v ie w
e x a m p le : T h e v ie w
so c ie ty , so th a t b e lie v e a c o n c e p t a s th e rig h t tru th . F o r
th a t b e c o m e s “ a k n o w le d g e ” o r “ a th e o ry ” w h ic h is b e lie v e d b y th e w o rld
w e st th a t is “ th e M id d le E a st p e o p le is a te rro rist” , o r “ M a la y a n is la z y ” . T h is c o n c e p t is fo u n d e d
b y th e ru le r w h o is d o m in a n t in fo rm in g a v ie w o f so c ie t y to w a rd s th e o b je c t, so th a t th e so c ie ty
p ro p e rly e n tru sts th e v ie w o r “ k n o w le d g e ” . T h e n a tu ra ln e ss re p re se n ts th e p ro c e ss th a t b e c o m e s
v a lid a n d b e tru ste d .
S in a r (2 0 0 8 : 8 4 ) sa y s th a t in th e c o n te x t o f id e o lo g y , th e re is a re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n
la n g u a g e w ith th e so c ie ty a n d th e ru le r. T h e p o w e r c a n fo rm
th e v ie w
o f so c ie ty to w a rd s th e
o b je c t, so th a t th e so c ie ty b e lie v e s th e v ie w b e c o m e s th e tru th .
2 .3 M e t a f u n c t i o n s o f L a n g u a g e
In e v e ry la n g u a g e u sa g e in th e so c ia l c o n te x ts se m io tic s, m e ta fu n c tio n o f la n g u a g e th a t
is
p re se n t to
la n g u a g e .
e x p la in
The
2
th in g s
m e ta fu n c tio n s
th a t in flu e n c e s
as
th e
each
th e o re tic a l
o th e r b e tw e e n th e la n g u a g e a n d a n o th e r
concept
g iv e
som eone
th e
c a p a b ility
u n d e rsta n d th e la n g u a g e a n d a n o th e r la n g u a g e , a lso a s a m e e tin g w h ic h h a s fo rm e d
g ram m ar. In
o th e r w o rd s, th e
m e ta fu n c tio n
c o n c e p t w h ic h
c o n n e c ts
in te rn a l a n d its fu n c tio n to th e so c ia l c o n te x t se m io tic s. T h e sy ste m
sy ste m
o f lin g u istic m e a n in g is S e m a n tic s th a t is a fo rm
th e
fo rm s
to
shape of
o f la n g u a g e
o f so c ia l se m io tic s is th e
o f re a liz a tio n fro m
so c ia l se m io tic s
(S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 2 8 ).
The
m e ta fu n c tio n
has
an
im p lic a tio n
e ith e r
sin ta g m a tic . P a ra d ig m a tic a lly , th e y a rra n g e th e sy ste m
th e
re la tio n sh ip
of
p a ra d ig m a tic
or
o f th e c h a in o f th e se le c tio n g ro u p th a t
re lie s o n e a c h o th e r, w ith th e in t
M A G A Z IN E ’S S E L E C T E D A R T IC L E S
B Y : B E R N I E K E A . R I S T I A D A M A N I K , S .P d , M .H u m
IN T R O D U C T IO N
1 .1 B a c k g r o u n d o f t h e A n a l y s i s
H u m a n b e in g a s so c ia l fig u re n e e d s th e m e a n s o f c o m m u n ic a tio n w h ic h is c o m m o n ly
n a m e d la n g u a g e . It is a th e o ry o f H a llid a y (in S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 5 6 ) “ L a n g u a g e a s a re so u rc e fo r
m a k in g m e a n in g w h ic h is situ a te d in a c o n te x t o f situ a tio n a n d a c o n te x t o f c u ltu re ” . In o th e r
w o rd s, it c o n c e rn s w ith th e stu d y o f re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n la n g u a g e a n d c o n te x ts in w h ic h is u se d .
“A
la n g u a g e is a „m e ta sta b le ‟ sy ste m ; it p e rsists b e c a u se it is c o n sta n tly in flu x ” H a llid a y (in
S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 4 7 ). It is a lso c a lle d S y ste m ic F u n c tio n a l L in g u istic s, H a llid a y (in S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 5 6 ),
th e re a re 3 m a jo r fu n c tio n s o f la n g u a g e :
1 . T h e Id e a tio n a l F u n c tio n
It is la n g u a g e a s re p re se n ta tio n o r re fle c tio n in w h ic h th e sp e a k e r a s a n o b se rv e r o f
re a lity c o n stru e s “ n a tu ra l” re a lity . T h e re a re 2 su b fu n c tio n s in th e Id e a tio n a l F u n c tio n :
a .) T h e E x p e r i e n t i a l F u n c t i o n
It u se s la n g u a g e a s re p re se n ta tio n th e n ; it is re a liz e d b y th e tra n sitiv ity sy ste m .
b .) T h e L o g i c a l F u n c t i o n
It u se s la n g u a g e a s n a tu ra l lo g ic . It is re a liz e d b y th e c la u se c o m p le x ity sy ste m
la n g u a g e .
of
2 . T h e In te rp e rso n a l F u n c tio n
It is la n g u a g e a s e x c h a n g e o r a c tio n , in w h ic h th e sp e a k e r a s a n in tru d e r o f re a lity
c o n stru e s in te rsu b je c tiv e re a lity . It is re a liz e d b y th e m o o d sy ste m .
3 . T h e T e x tu a l F u n c tio n
It
is
as
m essage
o r re le v a n c e
in
w h ic h
th e
sp e a k e r c o n stru e s
se m io tic
re a lity
by
re a litie s to th e c o n te x ts w ith in w h ic h m e a n in g s a re m a d e . It is re a liz e d b y th e th e m e sy ste m .
B a se d o n th e th e o ry o f S y ste m ic , S in a r (2 0 0 3 : 5 5 ), la n g u a g e is a so c ia l p h e n o m e n o n ,
th a t is to sa y th a t la n g u a g e te n d s to b e th e m e a n s o f d o in g so m e th in g th a n k n o w in g so m e th in g .
L a n g u a g e is a sy ste m th a t c o n sists o f th e c h o ic e s o f m e a n in g . S o m e o f th e im p o rta n t m a in p o in ts
o f S y ste m ic F u n c tio n a l L a n g u a g e T h e o ry a n d h o w o n e re la te s to th e o th e r in fo rm in g b a sis o f
d isc o u rse a n a ly sis th a t w ill b e d iv id e d in to 3 m a in e x p la n a tio n s, th e y a re :
1 . L a n g u a g e is F u n c tio n a l
L a n g u a g e h a s e v o lv e d to se rv e h u m a n n e e d s a n d th e n a s su c h th a t o n e n e e d s to fo c u s
on
how
p e o p le
use
la n g u a g e
in
o rd er
to
u n d e rsta n d
it. T h e
fu n c tio n a l w ith re sp e c t to th e h u m a n n e e d s; it is n o t a rb itra ry b y
w ay
la n g u a g e
is
o rg a n iz e d
is
H a llid a y (in
S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 5 5 ).
2 . T h e F u n c tio n o f L a n g u a g e is to M a k e M e a n in g s
W h e n h u m a n b e in g s e x p re ss th e ir n e e d s th ro u g h la n g u a g e , th e y a re m a k in g m e a n in g s
in a te x t, w h ic h is a fu n c tio n a l la n g u a g e . C o n te x tu a liz in g th is to la n g u a g e le a rn in g , H a llid a y (in
S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 5 6 ) v ie w s la n g u a g e le a rn in g a s “ le a rn in g h o w
m a k e m e a n in g s.
3 . L a n g u a g e U se is C o n te x tu a l
to m e a n ” , th a t is, le a rn in g h o w
to
L a n g u a g e u se is c o n te x tu a l, p a rtic u la rly in th e se n se th a t it i s c o n te x tu a lly b o u n d o r
m o tiv a te d . T h e c o n te x tu a liz a tio n o f la n g u a g e p ro p o se d b y M a lin o w sk i
(in S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 5 8 )
is e x te n d e d b y F irth , in w h ic h h e a rg u e s th a t lin g u istic s sh o u ld b e lin k e d to c u ltu ra l c o n te x t
b e c a u se th e m e a n in g o f lin g u istic ite m
is d e p e n d e n t o n c u ltu ra l c o n te x t (in S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 5 8 ).
G e n e ra l S y ste m ic -fu n c tio n a l L in g u istic T h e o ry v ie w s th a t la n g u a g e is a n e x p re ssio n o f so c ia l
b e h a v io u r
in
c o n te x ts. In
M a lin o w sk i‟s
fre q u e n tly
q u o te d
w o rd s
(in
S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 5 8 ), “ th e
m e a n in g o f a n y sin g le w o rd is to a v e ry h ig h d e g re e d e p e n d e n t o n its c o n te x t” .
H a llid a y (in S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 6 0 ) sa y s th a t th e re a re six E x p e rie n tia l F u n c tio n s, th e y a re :
1 . M a te ria l F u n c tio n
T h e p r o c e s s o f d o i n g s a n d h a p p e n i n g s , i n w h i c h a p a r t i c i p a n t , i .e . „ a t h i n g ‟ , i s e n g a g e d
in a p ro c e ss o f d o in g , w h ic h m a y in v o lv e so m e o th e r p a rtic ip a n t(s).
2 . M e n ta l F u n c tio n
The
p ro cess
of
se n sin g , in
w h ic h
a
p a r t i c i p a n t , i .e . a
c o n sc io u s
b e in g
o r th in g , is
e n g a g e d i n a p r o c e s s o f s e e i n g , f e e l i n g , o r t h i n k i n g , w h i c h m a y i n v o l v e s o m e o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t ( s ).
3 . R e la tio n a l F u n c tio n
T h e p ro c e ss o f b e in g , w h o se c e n tra l m e a n in g is so m e th in g is
(a ttrib u te ,
id e n tity ).
4 . B e h a v io u ra l F u n c tio n
T h e p ro c e ss o f b e h a v in g , w h ic h m a y b e e x e m p lifie d b y th e p ro c e sse s o f b re a th in g ,
d re a m in g , sm ilin g , e tc .
5 . V e rb a l F u n c tio n
T h e p ro c e ss o f sa y in g .
6 . E x iste n tia l F u n c tio n
T h e p ro c e ss o f e x p re ssin g th a t so m e th in g e x ists o r h a p p e n s .
A c c o rd in g to H a llid a y (in S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 6 0 ), th e fra m e w o rk o f th e p ro c e ss sta tu s, a s se t
u p in th e c la u se g ra m m a r is th a t a p ro c e ss c o n sists, in p rin c ip le , o f th re e c o m p o n e n ts:
1 .) T h e p r o c e s s i t s e l f
It is ty p ic a lly re a liz e d b y a v e rb o r a v e rb a l g ro u p .
2 .) P a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e p r o c e s s
It is ty p ic a lly re a liz e d b y a n o u n o r n o m in a l g ro u p .
3 .) C i r c u m s t a n c e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p r o c e s s
It is ty p ic a lly b y a n a d v e rb ia l g ro u p o r p re p o sitio n a l g ro u p /p h ra se .
R e g a rd in g
to
M a g a zin e , H o rn b y
(1 9 7 4 : 5 1 1 ) say s
th a t it is p a p e r -c o v e re d (u su a lly
w e e k ly o r m o n th ly , a n d illu stra te d ) p e rio d ic a l, w ith sto rie s, a rtic le s, e tc b y v a rio u s w rite rs.
H o rn b y (1 9 7 4 : 4 3 ) sta te s th a t A rtic le is a p ie c e o f w ritin g , c o m p le te in o n e se lf, in a
n e w sp a p e r o r th e o th e r p e rio d ic a l.
R e a d e r’s D ig e st M a g a zin e is a m o n th ly m a g a z in e . It w a s fo u n d e d in 1 9 2 2 b y L ila B e ll
W a lla c e a n d D e w itt W a lla c e . It is in N e w
Y o rk . A lth o u g h its c irc u la tio n h a s d e fin e d in re c e n t
y e a rs, th e A u d it B u re a u o f C irc u la tio n sa y s R e a d e r’s D ig e st M a g a zin e is still th e b e st se llin g
c o n su m e r m a g a z in e in th e U S A , w ith a c irc u la tio n o f o v e r 1 0 m illio n c o p ie s in th e U n ite d S ta te s,
a n d a re a d e rsh ip o f 3 8 m illio n a s m e a su re d b y M e d ia m a rk R e se a rc h (M R I). A c c o rd in g to M R I,
R e a d e r ’ s D i g e s t M a g a z i n e r e a c h e s m o r e r e a d e r s w i t h h o u s e h o l d i n c o m e s o f $ 1 0 0 .0 0 0 t h a n o t h e r
m a g a z in e s. T h e M a g a z in e is c o m p a c t, w ith its p a g e s ro u g h ly h a lf th e s iz e o f m o st A m e ric a n
m a g a z i n e s . A c c e s s e d a t h t t p / / w w w .w i k i p e d i a .c o m / A u g u s t 2 3 , 2 0 0 8 ; 2 0 .1 5 p m .
In
th is
th e sis, I a m
fu n c tio n s o r n o t in
g o in g
to
a n a ly z e , to
fin d
o u t if th e re a re a n y th e e x p e rie n tia l
R e a d e r’s D ig e st M a g a zin e ’ s S e le c te d A rtic le s. I c h o o se
R e a d e r’s D ig e st
M a g a zin e o f th e 2 0 0 3 ‟s e d itio n sin c e I k n e w th a t th is c o m p a c t – siz e m a g a z in e lo o k s so u n iq u e
a n d fu ll o f v a rio u s te x ts fo r re se a rc h p u rp o se s.
1 .2 P r o b l e m s o f t h e A n a l y s i s
In a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e title o f th is th e sis, th e re a re tw o q u e stio n s to b e ra ise d
th a t
m o tiv a te m e to d o th is a n a ly sis:
1 . W h a t e x p e rie n tia l fu n c tio n s a re in R e a d e r’s D ig e st M a g a zin e ‟s S e le c te d A rtic le s?
2 . W h ic h fu n c tio n is th e m o st fre q u e n t in R e a d e r’s D ig e st M a g a zin e ‟s S e le c te d
A rtic le s?
1 .3 O b j e c t i v e s o f t h e A n a l y s i s
T h e o b je c tiv e s o f th e th e sis a re :
1 . T o fin d o u t th e e x p e rie n tia l fu n c tio n s o c c u rre d in R e a d e r’s D ig e st M a g a zin e ‟s
S e le c te d A rtic le s.
2 . T o id e n tify th e m o st fre q u e n t fu n c tio n o c c u rre d in R e a d e r’s D ig e st M a g a zin e ‟s
S e le c te d A rtic le s.
1 .4 S c o p e o f t h e A n a l y s i s
T h e a n a ly sis o n ly fo c u se s in th e e x p e rie n tia l fu n c tio n s in R e a d e r’s D ig e st M a g a zin e ‟s
S e le c te d A rtic le s.
1 .5 S i g n i f i c a n c e s o f t h e A n a l y s i s
It is e x p e c te d th a t th is th e sis c o n trib u te so m e th in g fru itfu l fo r th e re a d e rs a s fo llo w s:
1 . A ssistin g th e le a rn e rs o f D isc o u rse A n a ly sis to fin d o u t th e m o st fre q u e n t fu n c tio n
ty p e in th e o th e r m a g a z in e .
2 . B e in g a s o n e o f th e re fe re n c e s in a n a ly z in g fu n c tio n ty p e u sin g e x p e rie n tia l
fu n c tio n in th e a rtic le .
3 . E x p a n d in g th e w rite r‟s u n d e rsta n d in g a b o u t D isc o u rse A n a ly sis e sp e c ia lly a b o u t
th e e x p e rie n tia l fu n c tio n s.
R E V IE W
O F R E L A T E D
L IT E R A T U R E
A N D T H E O R E T IC A L F R A M E W O R K
2 .1 A n O v e r v i e w o f D i s c o u r s e A n a l y s i s
D isc o u rse a n a ly sis is n o t a sim p le fie ld o f stu d y . It c o v e rs th e u se o f la n g u a g e , sp o k e n
a n d w ritte n , in th e re a l c o m m u n ic a tio n . D isc o u rse a n a ly sis in its e v e ry d a y p ra c tic e d e a ls w ith
te x ts
as
h e te ro g e n e o u s
as
a d v e rtise m e n ts,
b io lo g ic a l
research
a rtic le s,
p o lic e
in te rv ie w s,
n e w sp a p e r e d ito ria ls, a n d life sto rie s.
In o rd e r n o t to b e w ro n g in th e u sa g e o f d isc o u rse a n d te x t, th e re a re so m e d e fin itio n s b y
th e e x p e rts o f lin g u istic s:
H a llid a y &
H a sa n (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 7 ) sa y th a t te x t is th e u n it o f th e la n g u a g e
u sa g e . It‟s n o t th e g ra m m a tic a l u n it lik e c la u se a n d se n te n c e ; a n d it‟s n o t d e fin e d b y fo llo w in g its
le n g th ” . In d isc o u rse a n a ly sis, th e w o rd te x t g e n e ra lly , re fe rs to th e re c o rd o f situ a tio n p ro c e ss
(d isc o u rsa l a c c o rd in g to G re g o ry (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 7 ) in v o lv e d w ith o u t a n y lim ita tio n o n la n g u a g e
sy ste m s.
H a llid a y ‟s v ie w
fro m
(in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 7 )
show
th a t a te x t u se s la n g u a g e w h e re its so u rc e is
o ra l a n d w ritte n m e d ia s w ith o u t a n y lim ita tio n s, w h ic h fo rm s th e w h o le u n its, th e u n it o f
la n g u a g e u sa g e ; n o t g ra m m a tic a l u n it lik e c la u se a n d se n te n c e ; a n d is n o t d e fin e d b a se d o n its
le n g th ; h a s a u n ity o r te x tu re w h ic h d iffe r s it fro m th e o n e w h ic h is n o t a te x t a n d it in v o lv e s th e
se m a n tic
re la tio n
referred
to
w h ic h
is
c a lle d
as
C o h e sio n
and
C o h eren ce
in
an
ex p ressed
m e a n in g , it‟s n o t o n ly in C O N T E N T /F O R M , b u t th e W H O L E c h o ic e o f th e so u rc e o f la n g u a g e
se m a n tic s.
S in a r (2 0 0 8 : 7 ) c ite s a s a la n g u a g e u n it, a te x t c o n sists o f sig n a ls a n d re p re se n tin g th e
a c tio n s u n d e rg o n e b y th e h u m a n b e in g s o r m e a n in g fu l o b je c ts a n d situ a tio n s, th e sy m b o ls w h ic h
c o n stru c t T H E C O N T E N T /F O R M
a n d p ro d u c e th e stru c tu re a n d h a v e th e u n ity o f te x tu re . T h e
te x tu re o f th e te x t p ro d u c e s a c o h e siv e a n d c o h e re n c e m e ssa g e . T h e a sp e c t o f c o h e sio n a n d
te x tu a l c o h e re n c e p la y s o n im p o rta n t ro le w h ic h sh o w
th e u n ity o f d isc o u rse in la n g u a g e a n d
m a rk th e re la tio n o f th e te x t sim u lta n e o u sly a s a p o te n tia l w h ic h is u se d b y th e sp e a k e r a n d
d isc o u rse w rite r.
S tilla r, G (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 8 ) sa y s th a t te x t sh o w s a k in d o f u n ity o r te x tu re w h ic h g iv e s th e
c a p a b ility to th e te x t w h ic h is n o tic e d so c ia lly a s so m e th in g in t a c t. T e x t is b o u n d a n d tie d u p a n d
as
a
m eans
p ro d u ced . T h e
fu n c tio n
is
b rin g in g
to g e th e r
th e
se p a ra te d
p a rts. T e x t h a s
th e
m e a n in g fu l u n it, a n d it is th e a u th o rity o f th e so u rc e o f m e a n in g m a k e r in c lu d e d th e so u rc e o f
“ m a te ria l” w h ic h h a s a q u a lity , su c h a s v o ic e q u a lity fo r a n o ra l te x t o r d ra ft o f a w ritte n te x t.
T h e id e n tific a tio n o f te x t c a n b e a c c o m p lish e d th ro u g h th e to g e th e rn e ss o f te x t su b sta n c e w h ic h
is a sso c ia te d b y th e so c ia l a g e n ts in v a rio u s situ a tio n s.
K re ss (in S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 2 3 ) sa y s th a t “ D isc o u rse is a c a te g o ry th a t b e lo n g s to a n d d e riv e s
fro m
th e L in g u istic d o m a in . T h e re la tio n b e tw e e n th e tw o is o n e o f re a liz a tio n : D isc o u rse fin d s
its e x p re ssio n in te x t. H o w e v e r, th is is n e v e r a stra ig h t fo rw a rd re la tio n ; a n y o n te x t m a y b e th e
e x p re ssio n o r re a liz a tio n o f a n u m b e r o f so m e tim e s c o m p e tin g a n d c o n tra d ic to ry d isc o u rse s” .
S in a r (2 0 0 8 : 8 ) sa y s th a t te x t is ju st lik e a liv e th in g o n la n g u a g e le v e l a n d te x t is a lso a s a
s e m a n t i c u n i t t h a t i s t h e s o u r c e o f m e a n i n g m a k e r , i t c a n r e a l i z e t h e m e a n i n g w h i c h i s c o n t r o l le d b y
th e d isc o u rse m e a n ing . A s a m a tte r o f fa c t, m o rp h e m e , w o rd , p h ra se , a n d c la u se re a liz e a w o rd in g
w h ic h is c o n tro lle d b y th e g ra m m a r a n d le x ic o n . P h o n e m e re a liz e s th e so u n d (p h o n o lo g y ) a n d
re a liz e s g ra p h e m e /a le tte r (g ra p h o lo g y ). T h e a n a ly sis o f te x t c a n b e d o n e in th e le v e l b e lo w te x t
t h a t i s i n v e s t i g a tin g s o m e a s p e c t s , s u c h a s : g r a p h e m e / p h o n e m e , m o r p h e m e , w o r d , p h r a s e , c l a u s e
t h a t i s v e r t i c a l ly t o t h e b o t t o m t h a t i s a n a l y z i n g t h e l i n g u i s t i c v a r i a b l e s . N e x t , w e c a n a n a l y z e t h e
t e x t v e r t i c a l ly t o t h e t o p b y i n v e s t i g a tin g t h e c o n t e x t v a r i a b l e s t h a t i s c o n t e x t s o f s i t u a t i o n , c u l t u r e ,
a n d id e o lo g y . T h e v a ria b le th a t still e x ists a b o v e th e te x t in te ra c ts o r in flu e n c e s e a c h o th e r w ith th e
t e x t . A l l t h e v a r i a b l e s o f c o n t e x t s a r e f o u n d i n t h e t e x t , t h e v a r i a b l e s o f l i n g u i s t ic s a r e a l s o f o u n d i n
th e te x t a n d g lo b a lly a ll th e p o te n tia ls a re a n a ly z e d d e p e n d in g o n th e n e e d s o r a im
w h ic h is
in te n d e d b y th e re se a rc h e r a n d h o w fa r th e re le v a n c e o r th e in v o lv e m e n t o f v a ria b le in w h ic h w ill
b e search ed .
F ro m
L in g u istic
m e n tio n e d
th o se d e fin itio n s o f d isc o u rse a n d te x t, I a g re e w ith th e e x p e rts o f th e S y ste m ic
T h eo ry
th a t
lik e
K re ss, H a llid a y , a n d
d isc o u rse
is
a
so c ia l
S tilla r
d o m a in
and
as
te x t
e m p h a siz e d
b e lo n g s
to
(in
S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 8 ) w h o
lin g u istic
d o m a in . T h e
d isc o u rse a n d te x t, o f c o u rse , h a v e se p a ra te d d o m a in s; n e v e rth e le ss th e re la tio n b e tw e e n te x t
a n d d isc o u rse is a re a liz a tio n . In a d d itio n , d isc o u rse m o v e s a c tiv e ly a n d c a n d o so m e th in g in th e
re a l c o n te x t w h ic h d e te rm in e s th e so c ia l life . T h e d i sc o u rse is c lo se ly re la te d to th e c o n te x ts o f
situ a tio n , c u ltu re , a n d id e o lo g y .
2 .2 S y s t e m i c F u n c t i o n a l L i n g u i s t i c s T h e o r y
Language
th e o ry h a s v a rio u s w a y s in se e in g a la n g u a g e p h e n o m e n o n . T h e se th e o rie s
sp re a d fa st a n d b e c o m e m o re so p h istic a te d in its d e v e lo p m e n t in so c ie ty . T h e o ry o f S y ste m ic
L in g u istic F u n c tio n a l th e n sta n d s fo r S F L T is o n e o f a lin g u istic th e o ry w h e re its p h ilo g e n e tic
d e v e lo p m e n t in la n g u a g e a s th e p h e n o m e n o n sin c e F irth a g e in 2 0
th
c e n tu ry w h o h a s le d h is
p e o p le c a lle d lin g u istic p e o p le . T h e fa c t sh o w s th a t fo r m a n y y e a rs, S F L T fo c u s its re se a rc h a n d
a c a d e m ic a c tiv itie s to w a rd s la n g u a g e , te x t, d isc o u rse , a n d c o n te x ts, to m a k e a th e o ry , to b e a
m o d e l to d e sc rib e , a n d to e x p la in th e th e o rie s fo r th e v a rio u s n e e d s a n d p u rp o se s. In fe rre d fro m
th is h isto ric a l b a c k g ro u n d , d isc o u rse a n a ly sis is c o n c e rn e d w ith th e stu d y o f th e re la tio n sh ip
b e tw e e n la n g u a g e a n d th e c o n te x ts in w h ic h it is u se d . It g re w o u t o f w o rk in d iffe re n t d isc ip lines
in th e 1 9 6 0 s a n d e a rly 1 9 7 0 s, in c lu d in g lin g u istic s, se m io tic s, p sy c h o lo g y , a n th ro p o lo g y , a n d
so c io lo g y . D isc o u rse a n a ly sts stu d y la n g u a g e in u se , w ritte n te x t o f a ll k in d s, a n d sp o k e n d a ta ,
fro m
c o n v e rsa tio n to h ig h ly in stitu tio n a liz e d fo rm s o f ta lk . D isc o u rse a n a ly sis h a s g ro w n in to a
w id e ra n g in g a n d h e te ro g e n e o u s d isc ip lin e w h ic h fin d s its u n ity in th e d e sc rip tio n o f la n g u a g e
a b o v e th e se n te n c e a n d a n in te re st in th e c o n te x ts a n d c u ltu ra l in flu e n c e s w h ic h a ffe c t la n g u a g e
in
u se. It
co n cern s
w ith
la n g u a g e , id e o lo g y , a n d
w id e r
c o n te x t, a n a ly z in g
p o w e r, d isc o u rse
in
la n g u a g e
w h ic h
ad d ress
in v o lv e m e n t o f
so c io -c u ltu ra l c h a n g e , a n a ly sis
o f d isc o u rse in
d iffe re n t fie ld o f sc ie n c e s, a n d c ritic a l la n g u a g e a w a re n e ss. T h e la te st d e v e lo p m e n t is u n d e r th e
i n f l u e n c e o f N o r m a n F a i r c l o u g h ( i n R e f n a l d y , d k k , 2 0 0 6 : 6 .2 2 ) .
S y ste m ic F u n c tio n a l T h e o ry h a s a b ig n o tic e th ro u g h th e re la tio n b e tw e e n la n g u a g e a n d
c o n te x t. F o r so m e te n y e a rs, S y ste m ic F u n c tio n a l T h e o ry h a s a v ie w
la n g u a g e
can
be
illu stra te d
in
a
w ay
th a t
re la te s
to
th e
re la tio n
th a t a n a c tiv ity o f u sin g
one
d isc o u rse
w ith
o th e r
d isc o u rse , u n til it b e c o m e s a d isc o u rse w h ic h h a s a c o m p o sitio n o f g ra m m a r, a fte rw a rd s, th e
w h o le o f th e d isc o u rse is sta te d in b y rh y th m a n d in to n a tio n .
E a c h c la u se h a s a fu n c tio n a n d m e a n in g fu l, th e y a re : m e a n in g s o r fu n c tio n s o f id e a tio n a l,
in te rp e rso n a l, a n d te x tu a l. In a c la u se , th e re a re so m e u n its, th e y a re g ro u p o r p h ra se . T h e y a re
lo w e r th a n th e c la u se . I n S y ste m ic F u n c tio n a l T h e o ry , a te rm
g ro u p o r p h ra se is a s a u n it o f
g ra m m a r h a v in g a d iffe re n c e . In o th e r w o rd s, a g ro u p o r p h ra se is e x p a n sio n . A u n it o f w o rd s is
fo u n d in a g ro u p o r p h ra se . A u n it o f w o rd s c o n ta in s a m o rp h e m e . A w o rd is a u n it o f g ra m m a r
a s th e e le m e n t o f a g ro u p o r p h ra se b u ild e r a n d a m o rp h e m e is a u n it o f g ra m m a r w h ic h b u ild s a
w o rd . T h e n , b a se d o n S y ste m ic F u n c tio n a l T h e o ry , a se n te n c e is n o t th e u n it o f la n g u a g e b u t, it
is th e u n it o f w ritte n la n g u a g e th a t it is sta rte d w ith a c a p it a l le tte r a n d e n d e d w ith a fu ll sto p . F o r
in sta n c e , sh e g e ts a n g ry w ith y o u (S in a r, 2 0 0 3 : 1 3 -1 8 ), fo r in sta n c e : n o u n g ro u p o r n o u n p h ra se
(th e u g ly g irl) v e rb g ro u p o r v e rb p h ra se (h a s c o m e , w ill c o m e ), a d v e rb g ro u p o r a d v e rb p h ra se
(v e ry b e a u tifu l). O n th e c o n tra ry , a p h ra se is a d e c re a sin g o f c la u se , su c h a s: p re p o sitio n p h ra se
(at h o m e).
P i c t u r e 1 .1 U n i t o f L a n g u a g e G r a m m a r
C la u se
G ro u p /P h ra se
W o rd
M o rp h em e
2 .2 .1 T e x t u a l F r a m e w o r k
A
te x t is tra d itio n a lly u n d e rsto o d
to b e a p ie c e o f w ritte n la n g u a g e . A
ra th e r b ro a d e r
c o n c e p tio n h a s b e c o m e c o m m o n w ith in d isc o u rse a n a ly sis w h e re a te x t m a y b e e ith e r w ritte n o r
sp o k e n d isc o u rse . In c u ltu ra l a n a ly sis, b y c o n tra st, te x t d o e s n o t n e e d to b e la n g u a g e a t a ll: a n y
c u ltu ra l a rtifa c t –
p ic tu re , a b u ild in g , m u sic
– c a n b e se e n a s a te x t. A
te x t in c o n te m p o ra ry
s o c i e t y i s i n c r e a s i n g l y m u l t i - s e m io t ic ; t e x t w h o s e p r i m a r y s e m i o t i c f o r m i s l a n g u a g e i n c r e a s i n g ly
c o m b in e s la n g u a g e w ith o th e r se m io tic fo rm . T h e re a re 2 k in d s o f te x t (R e fn a ld y , d k k , 2 0 0 6 :
6 .2 4 - 6 .2 5 ) :
a.
S p o k e n te x ts
The
p ro b le m s
c o m m u n ic a tiv e
e n c o u n te re d
w ith
th e
n o tio n
of
te x t
as
th e
v erb al
reco rd
of
a
a c t b e c o m e a g o o d d e a l m o re c o m p le x w h e n w e c o n sid e r w h a t is m e a n t b y
sp o k e n te x t. T h e sim p le st v ie w to a ssu m e is th a t a ta p e -re c o rd in g o f a c o m m u n ic a tiv e a c t w ill
p re se rv e th e „te x t‟ a s w e ll a s th e e x tra n e o u s to th e te x t (c o u g h in g , c h a irs c re a k in g , b u se s g o in g
p a st, lig h tin g a c ig a re tte ). In g e n e ra l, d isc o u rse a n a ly st w o rk s w ith a ta p e re c o rd in g o f a n e v e n t
fro m
w h ic h s h e th e n m a k e s a w ritte n tra n sc rip tio n , a n n o ta te d a c c o rd in g to h e r in te re st o n a
p a rtic u la r o c c a sio n . S h e h a s to d e te rm in e w h a t c o n stitu te s th e v e rb a l e v e n t, a n d w h a t fo rm w ill
tra n sc rib e it in . H o w e v e r, it m u st b e fu rth e r n o tic e d th a t, h o w e v e r o b je c tiv e th e n o tio n o f „te x t‟
m a y a p p e a r a s w e h a v e d e fin e d it, th e p e rc e p tio n a n d in te rp re ta tio n o f e a c h te x t is e sse n tia lly
su b je c tiv e . D iffe re n t in d iv id u a ls p a y a tte n tio n to d iffe re n t a sp e c ts o f te x t. H o w e v e r, in d isc u ssin g
te x ts w e id e a liz e a w a y fro m
th is v a ria b i lity o f th e e x p e rie n c in g o f th e te x t a n d a ssu m e th a t
re a d e rs o f a te x t o r liste n e r to a te x t sh a re th e sa m e e x p e rie n c e . A te x t fre q u e n tly h a s a m u c h
w id e r v a rie ty o f in te rp re ta tio n s im p o se d u p o n it b y a n a ly sts stu d y in g it. O n c e th e a n a ly st h a s
c re a te d a w ritte n tra n sc rip tio n fro m a re c o rd e d sp o k e n v e rsio n , th e w ritte n te x t is a v a ila b le to h e r
in ju st th e w a y th e lite ra ry te x t is a v a ila b le to th e lite ra ry c ritic . W h e n w e d isc u ss sp o k e n te x t, it
is im p o rta n t to re m e m b e r th e tra n sito rin e ss o f th e o rig in a l.
It
m ust
be
c le a r
th a t
our
sim p le
d e fin itio n
of
„te x t‟
as
„th e
v erb al
reco rd
of
c o m m u n ic a tiv e a c t‟ re q u ire s a t le a st tw o h e d g e s: th e re p re se n ta tio n o f a te x t w h ic h is p re se n te d
fo r d isc u ssio n m a y in p a rt c o n sists o f a p rio r a n a ly sis o r in te rp re ta tio n o f a f ra g m e n t o f d isc o u rse
a n d fe a tu re s o f th e o rig in a l p ro d u c tio n o f th e la n g u a g e .
b . W ritte n T e x ts
A
te x t m a y b e d iffe re n tly p re se n te d in d iffe re n t e d itio n s, w ith d iffe re n t ty p e -fa c e , o n
d iffe re n t six e s o f p a p e r, in o n e o r tw o c o lu m n s. It is im p o rta n t to c o n sid e r ju st w h a t it is th a t is
„th e sa m e ‟. M in im a lly th e w o rd s sh o u ld b e th e sa m e w o rd s, p re se n te d in th e sa m e o rd e r.
T h e d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n sp o k e n a n d w ritte n te x t:
a.
The
sy n ta x
of
spoken
la n g u a g e
is
ty p ic a lly
m uch
le ss
stru c tu re d
th a n
th a t
of
w ritte n
la n g u a g e : sp o k e n la n g u a g e c o n ta in s m a n y in c o m p le te se n te n c e s, o fte n sim p ly se q u e n c e s o f
p h rases, sp o k en
la n g u a g e
ty p ic a lly c o n ta in s ra th e r little su b o rd in a tio n , in c o n v e rsa tio n a l
sp e e c h , a c tiv e d e c la ra tiv e fo rm s a re n o rm a lly fo u n d .
b.
In w ritte n la n g u a g e a n e x te n siv e se t o f m e ta lin g u a l m a rk e rs e x ists to m a rk re la tio n sh ip s
b e tw e e n c la u se s (lo g ic a l c o n n e c to r s). T h e sp e a k e r is le ss e x p lic it th a n a w rite r.
c.
In w ritte n la n g u a g e , ra th e r h e a v ily p re m o d ifie d n o u n p h ra se s a re q u ite c o m m o n – it is ra re in
sp o k e n la n g u a g e .
d.
W h e re a s w ritte n la n g u a g e se n te n c e s a re g e n e ra lly stru c tu re d in su b je c t -p re d ic a te
fo rm , in sp o k e n la n g u a g e it is q u ite c o m m o n to fin d to p ic -c o m m e n t stru c tu re .
e.
In in fo rm a l sp e e c h , th e o c c u rre n c e o f p a ssiv e c o n stru c tio n is re la tiv e ly in fre q u e n t.
f.
In c h a t a b o u t th e im m e d ia te e n v iro n m e n t, th e sp e a k e r m a y re la y o n g a z e d ire c tio n to su p p ly a
re fe re n t.
g.
T h e sp e a k e r m a y re p la c e o r re fin e e x p re ssio n a s sh e g o e s a lo n g .
h.
T h e sp e a k e r ty p ic a lly u se s a g o o d d e a l o f ra th e r g e n e ra liz e d v o c a b u la ry .
i.
T h e sp e a k e r fre q u e n tly re p e a ts th e sa m e sy n ta c tic fo rm se v e ra l tim e s.
j.
T h e sp e a k e r m a y p ro d u c e a la rg e n u m b e r o f p re fa b ric a te d fille r: w e ll, e rm , I th in k , y o u k n o w ,
if y o u se e w h a t I m e a n , o f c o u rse , a n d so o n .
D isc o u rse
a n a ly sis
in
its
ev ery d ay
a d v e rtise m e n ts, b io lo g ic a l re se a rc h
p ra c tic e
a rtic le s, p o lic e
d e a ls
w ith
te x ts
as
h e te ro g e n e o u s
as
in te rv ie w , n e w sp a p e r e d ito ria ls, a n d life
sto rie s.
F u rth e rm o re , siz e is n o t p rin c ip le in e x c lu d in g te x ts fro m
a n a ly sis sin c e te x t m a y h a v e
v a rie s in le n g th . T h e re a re , o f c o u rse , th e o re tic a l a n d p ra c tic a l c o n sid e ra tio n s re la te d to siz e . F irst
o f a ll, th e re is th e issu e o f lim its o f te x t a s a u n it; d isc o u rse a n a ly sis is b a se d o n a n a ly z in g a te x t
a s a n e n tity , a u n it fro m
b e g in n in g to a n e n d . T h e in c re a sin g sp re a d s o f c o m p u te r te c h n o lo g y is
a lso b o u n d to in flu e n c e c o n c e p tio n o f te x t a n d re d e fin e its lim it. F ro m a p ra c tic a l p o i n t o f v ie w ,
th e re a re d iffic u ltie s in th e a n a ly sis a n d p re se n ta tio n o f re su lts re la te d to v e ry la rg e te x ts. A s a
re su lt, m o st a p p lic a tio n s h a v e b e e n lim ite d to ra th e r sm a ll te x t – a lth o u g h th e re is a w h o le ra n g e
of
v ery
sm a ll
te x t
th a t
have
not been
stu d ie d : a n sw e rin g -m a c h in e
ta lk ,
e -m a il m a ssa g e s,
h e a d l i n e s a n d c a p t i o n s , s m a l l a d s , e t c , ( R e f n a l d y , d k k 2 0 0 6 : 6 .2 4 - 6 .2 8 ) .
2 .2 .2 C o n t e x t u a l F r a m e w o r k
A t t h e l e v e l o f c o n t e x t ( i .e . s y s t e m s o f h i g h e r - le v e l m e a n i n g ), i n v i e w o f t h i s s t u d y t h e r e a r e
s t r a t a l ly f o u r b r o a d c o n te x tu a l ( c o n n o t a t i v e ) s e m i o t i c s y s t e m s : r e l i g i o u s , i d e o l o g i c a l , c u l t u r a l a n d
s i t u a ti o n a l . A n y a s p e c t s o f h i g h e r - l e v e l m e a n i n g a n d s y s t e m s o f h i g h e r - l e v e l m e a n i n g w i t h i n t h e
c o n t e x t u a l s t r a ti fic a ti o n d i m e n s i o n u n d e r d i s c u s s io n a r e i n p r i n c ip le r e l e v a n t a n d p o t e n t i a l l y c r i t i c a l
fo r in v e stig a tio n , e x trin sic a lly a n d fu n c tio n a lly , a t th e le v e l o f c o n te x t, th e d iffe re n t m o d e s o f
m e a n in g c a n b e d iv e rsifie d in to fo u r b ro a d c o n te x tu a l m o d e s o f m e a n in g : re lig io u s, id e o lo g ic a l,
c u l t u r a l a n d s i t u a tio n a l. F o l lo w in g t h e S F L T f r a m e w o r k , t h e s i t u a t i o n a l m o d e o f m e a n i n g s c a n b e
d iv e rsifie d in to tw o m a jo r d im e n sio n s: th e d ia le c ta l a n d th e d ia ty p ic , a sp e c ts o f th e la tte r b e in g
id e n tifia b le
th ro u g h
th e
situ a tio n a l (d isc o u rsa l) v a ria b le s
o f fie ld , te n o r a n d m o d e . M o v in g
d o w n w a rd s, th e se v a ria b le s le a d to th e p h a sa l m o d e o f m e a n in g . A n y a sp e c ts o f d iv e rsifie d
c o n te x tua l m o d e s o f m e a n ing a n d sy ste m s o f d iv e rsifie d c o n te x tu a l m o d e s o f m e a n in g w ith in th e
c o n t e x t u a l d i v e rs i fic a t io n d i m e n s i o n u n d e r d i s c u s s io n a r e i n p r i n c ip le r e le v a n t a n d p o t e n tia lly c r i tic a l
fo r in v e stig a tio n , (S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 9 ).
T h e r e s e a rc h e r h a s t r ie d t o s h o w g l o b a l ly t h e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s a n d d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e o v e r a l l
s e m i o ti c s p a c e o f l a n g u a g e - in c o n t e x t i n a n a t t e m p t t o s e t t h e l e c t u re d i s c o u r s e -in t e x ts u n d e r s t u d y in
a
c o n te x t o f th e o re tic a l u n d e rp in n in g . A
c o m p re h e n siv e a c c o u n t o f d isc o u rse p h e n o m e n a in
c o n t e x t u a lly m o t iv a te d l i n g u is ti c t e x ts i n g e n e r a l i s o n e t h a t t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t a l l t h e c o n t e x t u a l a n d
lin g u istic a sp e c ts a n d d im e n sio n s o f th e o v e ra l l la n g u a g e -in -c o n te x t c o m p le x , (S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 1 3 ).
S F L T w o rk s o n „la n g u a g e -in -c o n te x t‟ a re a v a ila b le in a g re a t v a rie ty o f fo rm s (b o o k s,
c o n g re ss/c o n fe re n c e
e x p lo re
d iffe re n t
p ro c e e d in g s,
w ays
of
jo u rn a ls,
in te rp re tin g
c o m p u te riz e d
th in g s
th e o re tic a lly
and
in te rn e t
such
as
p ro g ram s,
e t c .) .
To
te x t, te x tu re , c o h e sio n ,
c o h e re n c e , d isc o u rse , re g iste r, g e n re , c o n te x t, situ a tio n , c u ltu re , id e o lo g y a n d o th e r re le v a n t
p h e n o m e n a a n d to sp e c ify th e th e o re tic a l sig n ific a n c e th e y d e riv e fro m th e lo c a tio n in th e o v e ra ll
S F L T re fe re n c e s o n th e n o tio n s o f su c h te rm s a re tra c e a b le th ro u g h th o se so u rc e s. W h ic h a re
c irc u la te d w o rld w id e . M a tth ie sse n (in S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 2 5 ).
S F L T v ie w s th a t th e stu d y o f la n g u a g e a lw a y s m e a n s a stu d y o f o v e ra ll la n g u a g e re la te d
to
its
stu d y
of
o v e ra ll c o n te x t in w h ic h la n g u a g e is u se d . C o n se q u e n tly , it stu d ie s n o t o n ly
la n g u a g e a s su c h b u t a lso m a n y o th e r th in g s th a t a re a ro u n d , a b o v e a n d b e y o n d la n g u a g e b u t
th e y h a v e re le v a n c e to it, (S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 4 5 ).
In g e n e ra l te rm s, th e m o d e ls d e v e lo p a s w a y s o f c r itic a lly u n d e rsta n d in g la n g u a g e a n d
c o n t e x t ( i n c l u d i n g t h e c o n c e p t s o f s o - c a l l e d t e x t , d i s c o u r s e , r e g i s t e r , e t c .) , t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r
re la tio n sh ip , a n d th e a sp e c ts, fe a tu re s a n d d im e n sio n s th a t a re in v o lv e d th e re in . W h ile o n e n e e d s
to re la te la n g u a g e to c o n te x t in o rd e r to u n d e rsta n d h o w a n d w h y la n g u a g e m e a n s w h a t it d o e s.
In th is c o n te x t th e re w ill n e v e r b e a n y c le a r -c u t b o u n d a rie s b e tw e e n w h e th e r o n e is in fa c t still
ta lk in g a b o u t la n g u a g e a s a sy ste m a n d p ro c e ss o r o n e is a lre a d y ta lk in g a b o u t c o n te x t (situ a tio n ,
c u l t u r e , i d e o l o g y , e t c .) a s a s y s t e m a n d p r o c e s s . D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t a t t e m p t s t o r e l a t e l a n g u a g e
to
c o n te x t w h e n
M a lin o w sk i (in
S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 4 8 ) in tro d u c e d
th e
te rm s
so -c a lle d
c o n te x t o f
situ a tio n a n d c o n te x t o f c u ltu re . In th is re sp e c t, it is n o t su rp risin g to fin d H a llid a y ‟s re g iste r (in
S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 4 8 ) th a t h e se e s a s so m e th in g lin g u istic b e in g u n d e rsto o d a s so m e th in g c o n te x tu a l
( i .e . s i t u a t i o n a l ) b y o t h e r s .
In th e g lo b a l a n d g e n e ra l m o d e llin g o f la n g u a g e a n d c o n te x t, a ll th e e x istin g m o d e ls o f
G SFLT
g e n e ra lly sh a re th e sa m e c o n c e p tu a l v ie w s. F o r e x a m p le , th e y w o u ld sh a re th e sa m e
v ie w s a s e x p re sse d in sta te m e n ts su c h a s th e se : (1 ) la n g u a g e d o e s n o t liv e in iso la tio n b u t it liv e s
i n e n v i r o n m e n t s , s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t s ( i .e . s o c i a l c o n t e x t s ) , ( 2 ) t o u n d e r s t a n d l a n g u a g e i s t o s e e
how
a n d w h y la n g u a g e m e a n s w h a t it d o e s in so c ia l c o n te x ts, (3 ) to u n d e rsta n d la n g u a g e is to
re la te la n g u a g e to th e so c ia l c o n te x ts in w h ic h it liv e s, (4 ) to u n d e rsta n d la n g u a g e is to se e h o w
la n g u a g e u se rs u se la n g u a g e to ta lk to e a c h o th e r, (5 ) th e re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n la n g u a g e a n d
so c ia l c o n te x ts is o n e o f m u tu a l e n g e n d e rin g : la n g u a g e c o n stru e s th e so c ia l c o n te x ts in w h ic h
la n g u a g e u se rs liv e , a n d it is a t th e sa m e tim e c o n stru e d b y th e so c ia l c o n te x ts, a n d (6 ) th e
re la tio n sh ip is o n e o f re a lisa tio n : la n g u a g e a s a se m io tic sy ste m re a lise s so c ia l c o n te x t a s a so c ia l
sy ste m , (S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 4 9 ).
2 .2 .2 .1 C o n t e x t o f S i t u a t i o n
L a n g u a g e is a so c ia l se m io tic s sy ste m
a n d e x ists in a c o n te x t. A s a se m io tic s sy ste m ,
la n g u a g e so c ia liz e s w ith o th e r se m io tic s sy ste m a n d b o rro w s th e m , su c h a s c o n te x t o f situ a tio n .
The
re la tio n sh ip
b e tw e e n
la n g u a g e
and
th e
c o n te x t
is
a
la n g u a g e
re a liz a tio n
as
th e
so c ia l
se m io tic s sy ste m . In o th e r w o rd s, la n g u a g e is th e e x iste n c e o f so m e th in g in th e c o n te x t a n d th e re
is n o la n g u a g e w ith o u t th e so c ia l c o n te x t (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 5 3 ).
T h e so c ia l c o n te x t sy ste m
is a t th e le v e l o f th e la n g u a g e c o n n o ta tiv e se m io tic s w h ic h
c o n sists o f th e c o n te x ts o f situ a tio n , c u ltu re a n d id e o lo g y so th a t, in in v e stig a tin g th e la n g u a g e ,
a n in te rp re ta tio n w h ic h is fo c u se d o n th e te x t, h a s to n o tic e its so c ia l d o m a in th a t is c o n te x ts o f
situ a tio n (re g iste r), c u ltu re (g e n re ) a n d id e o lo g y . T h e w h o le c o n te x ts re la te s to th e c h a ra c te ristic
o f te x t lin g u istic s (la n g u a g e ). H a llid a y (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 5 3 ) c o n n e c ts th e c o n te x ts o f situ a tio n to 3
fu n c tio n s o f la n g u a g e – d e te rm in e th e sp e a k e r‟s re la tio n , e la b o ra te s th e e x p e rie n c e o f th e sp e a k e r
in so c ia l a c tiv ity , c o m b in e th e a g re e m e n t p ro c e ss, a n d a n a ly z e s a ll c o n te x ts a s a sig n ific a n t
d isc o u rse .
In th e c o n te x t o f situ a tio n ‟s p e rsp e c tiv e , th e te rm
situ a tio n a l a n d “ d isc o u rsa l” c a n b e
u n d e rsto o d a n d in te rp re ta te d b y th e e x p e rt o f sy ste m ic w ith a d iffe re n t w a y . F o r e x a m p le : T h e
noun
fo r
situ a tio n a l
te rm ,
such
as:
“ situ a tio n ” ,
is
used
to
rep resen t
S y ste m ic -F u n c tio n a l
L in g u istic T h e o ry ‟ sp a c e o f c o n c e p t se m io tic s “ c o n te x t o f situ a tio n ” o r re g iste r a s a v a rie ty in
la n g u a g e o r re g iste r.
A c c o rd in g to H a llid a y a n d G re g o ry (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 5 3 ) re g iste r h a s 2 m a in d im e n sio n s, th a t is
(1 ) se m io tic s d im e n sio n “ d ia le c tic a l” , a n d (2 ) se m io tic s d im e n sio n “ d ia tip ic ” . In th is o c c a ssio n ,
d ia le c tic a l
d im e n sio n
c o n sists
of
“ la n g u a g e
in
c o n te x t
based
on
th e
u ser”
o r w h ic h
has
a
c o n c e p tu a l c a te g o ry , su c h a s: d ia le c ts o f so c ia l, g e o g ra p h ic a l, v a rie ty o f su b -c u ltu ra l (s ta n d a rd
a n d n o n sta n d a rd la n g u a g e s), la n g u a g e v a ria b le (c a ste , so c ia l c la ss, a g e , se x , e tc ) w h ic h in c lu d e s
in so c io lin g u istic s d isc u ssio n .
W h ereas
u sag e‟, o r as
a
th e
w ay
d im e n sio n
c o n v e y in g
of
th e
d ia tip ic , c o n sists
language. T he
o f „la n g u a g e -in
la n g u a g e
v a rie ty
is
c o n te x t b a se d
seen
fro m
on
th e
se m a n tic s
k n o w le d g e ‟s a n d re a liz e d th ro u g h th e le x ic o g ra m m a tic a , th e re is a c o n c e p tu a l c a te g o ry „fie ld o f
d isc o u rse ‟, te n o r o f d isc o u rse , a n d m o d e o f d isc o u rse .
In re g iste r d isc u ssio n , c o m p o n e n t p la c e m e n t o f fu n c tio n a l te n o r o f d isc o u rse a n d th e
m o d e o f d isc o u rse . G re g o ry (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 5 4 ) d isc u sse s fu n c tio n a l te n o r o f d isc o u rse th a t re fe rs
to p h a tic , e x p o sitio n , d id a c tic , p e rsu a siv e , o rd e r a n d n a rra tio n . T h u s, H a llid a y a n d H a sa n (in
S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 5 4 ) d isc u ss th e c o m p o n e n t o f a rh e to ric a l m o d e th a t re fe rs to th e a im w h ic h w ill b e
re a c h e d b y th e te x t th a t c a n b e d iffe re n t, b u t it d e p e n d s o n th e c h a ra c te ristic s o f te x t (p e rsu a siv e ,
e x p o sitio n , d id a c tic , a n d o th e rs). B y fo llo w in g S y ste m ic F u n c tio n a l L in g u istic s, th e fu n c tio n o f
la n g u a g e o rg a n iz a tio n in trin sic in te ra c ts w ith th e fu n c tio n o f la n g u a g e o rg a n iz a tio n e x trin sic o f
c o n te x t o f situ a tio n . T h e fie ld o f d isc o u rse h a s a c lo se re la tio n sh ip w ith Id e a tio n a l F u n c tio n , th e
te n o r o f d isc o u rse w ith In te rp e rso n a l F u n c tio n , a n d th e m o d e o f d isc o u rse w ith T e x tu a l F u n c tio n .
T h e d iv isio n o f re g iste r a s a se m io tic s sy ste m o f c o n te x t o f situ a tio n w ith g e n re a s th e se m io tic s
sy ste m
o f c o n te x t o f c u ltu re b rin g s a n im p o rta n t d isc o v e ry in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f S y ste m ic
F u n c tio n a l T h e o ry .
H a llid a y (in S in a r 2 0 0 3 : 4 0 ) u se s th e sa m e te rm
la n g u a g e a s a n a sp e c t o f a se p a ra te
“ re g iste r” to re fe r to fu n c tio n a l v a ria tio n o f
d im e n sio n o f o rg a n iz a tio n w ith in la n g u a g e .
2 .2 .2 .2 C o n t e x t o f C u l t u r e
M a rtin (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 6 4 ) sa y s:
G e n re a re re fe rre d to a s so c ia l p ro c e sse s b e c a u se m e m b e rs o f a c u ltu re in te ra c t w ith
e a c h o th e r to a c h ie v e th e m ; a s g o a l o rie n te d b e c a u se th e y h a v e e v o lv e d to g e t th in g s
does; and
as
sta g e d
because
it u su a lly ta k e s m o re th a n o n e ste p fo r p a rtic ip a n ts to
a c h ie v e th e ir g o a ls.
A c c o rd in g to M a rtin (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 6 6 ), la n g u a g e is a p a rt o f so c ie ty c u ltu re a n d g e n re
is a la n g u a g e h a rm o n y a s a p ro d u c t o f th e so c ie ty c u ltu re . In o th e r w o rd s, a w rite r o r a sp e a k e r
fro m
th e g ro u p o f c u ltu re u se s a la n g u a g e , se ts u p th e in te ra c tio n so c ia lly a n d b e c o m e s th e
p ro d u cer o f g en re.
M a rtin a n d H a sa n (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 6 8 ) sa y th a t th e d iv isio n o f re g iste r a s a se m io tic s
sy ste m o f c o n te x t o f situ a tio n w ith g e n re a s th e se m io tic s sy ste m o f c o n te x t o f c u ltu re b rin g s a n
im p o rta n t d isc o v e ry in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f S y ste m ic F u n c tio n a l T h e o ry .
R e fn a ld y ,
dkk
(2 0 0 6 :
643)
arg u es
th a t
c u ltu re
does
not
e x ist
w ith o u t
d isc o u rse .
D isc o u rse g iv e s stru c tu re a n d c o n te n ts to w h a t w e u n d e rsta n d b y c u ltu re . In th is v ie w , d isc o u rse
a n a ly sis b e c o m e s a n u m b re lla c o n c e p t n o t o n ly fo r te x t stu d ie s, b u t fo r la n g u a g e a n d in te ra c tio n
stu d ie s
in
g e n e ra l.
The
im p a c ts
of
c o n se q u e n c e s. F o r e x a m p le , e v e ry b o d y
a d d re ssin g
w ill a g re e
q u e stio n s
of
o n to lo g y
th a t „c o n te x t‟ is
one
have
fa r -re a c h in g
o f th e m o st c ru c ia l
c o n c e p ts in p ra g m a tic s. H o w e v e r, in c o n te x tu a liz a tio n itse lf is to b e se e n in te rm
o f d isc o u rse ,
th e sta tu s o f a n y p re su m e d c o m m o n d e n o m in a to r fo r u n d e rsta n d in g w ill b e q u e stio n a b le . F u rth e r
re se a rc h in th is fie ld w ill n o d o u b t g iv e u s a b e tte r u n d e rsta n d in g o f n o tio n s lik e v a ria b ility ,
in d e te rm in a c y a n d a m b iv a le n c e .
S in a r (2 0 0 8 : 8 4 ) sa y s th a t in th e c o n te x t o f c u ltu re o f d isc o u rse , th e sc h e m a tic stru c tu re
h a s th e h a rm o n y a lth o u g h th e b a sic sy ste m
is th e b a c k g ro u n d , th e c o n te n t, a n d th e c lo sin g . T h e
h a rm o n y o f sc h e m a tic stru c tu re is a s th e a im th a t is su ita b le w ith th e k in d s o f g e n re . T h e w rite r
o r th e sp e a k e r o f g e n re is p le a se d to b e u n d e rsto o d th e d isc o u rse sc h e m a tic stru c tu re to fu lfill
th e ir n e e d s b e fo re th e p ro c e ss o f d isc o u rse w ritin g b e g in s. S o th a t, th e w ritin g o f d isc o u rse is
su ita b le w ith th e n e e d s th a t c a n re a c h th e ta rg e t.
2 .2 .2 .3 C o n t e x t o f I d e o l o g y
Id e o lo g y
is
a
b e lie f, th e
v a lu e
th a t
is
obeyed
by
th e
so c ie ty , su c h
a s: Id e o lo g y
of
P a n c a sila , M a rx ism , o th e rs. Id e o lo g y a lso b e c o m e s a so c ia l c o n c e p t w h ic h d e te rm in e s th e v a lu e
in a so c ie ty . In o th e r w o rd s, Id e o lo g y is c o n tro lle d b y a p o w e r o f g ro u p w h ic h d o m in a te s th e
so c ie ty in p o sitiv e m e a n in g . It is sa id a s p o sitiv e b e c a u se th e id e a o r a se t o f v a lu e b e c o m e s th e
w a y s o f so c ie ty in m a n a g in g a n d ju stify in g th e ir life a s th e re p re se n ta tio n in re la tio n sh ip w ith th e
c o n d itio n o f th e ir e x iste n c e in th e so c ie ty .
K re ss (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 8 3 ) sa y s th a t Id e o lo g y c a n b e c re a te d b y th e in flu e n c e o f p o w e r
to w a rd s th e h isto ry o f p o litic s, th e so c ie ty sy ste m , th e v a lu e , lite ra tu re a n d c u ltu re fo rm e d th e
v ie w o f so c ie ty , so th a t b e lie v e th e “ c o n c e p t” .
M a x (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 8 3 ) sa y s th a t Id e o lo g y is a sy ste m w h ic h m isle a d s p u rp o se ly .
B e sid e s th a t, H a sa n (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 8 3 ) c ite s th a t Id e o lo g y is a s a liv e t h in g th ro u g h th e
d a ily
h a b it a c tio n
of a
so c ia l g ro u p
e ith e r a
v erb al o r a
n o n v e rb a l w h ic h is fa r fro m
th e ir
c o n sc io u s m in d to th e th in g s.
K re ss a n d H o d g e (in S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 8 4 ) sa y th a t a stu d y o f id e o lo g y ta lk s th e re la tio n sh ip
b e tw e e n la n g u a g e w ith th e so c ie ty a n d c u ltu re b e c a u se th e re is a n in flu e n c e o f th e p o litic so c ia l
g u id a n c e . T h e in flu e n c e o f p o w e r to w a rd s th e h isto ry , p o litic s, th e so c ie ty sy ste m , th e v a lu e , th e
lite ra tu re a n d c u ltu re fo rm e d a v ie w
e x a m p le : T h e v ie w
so c ie ty , so th a t b e lie v e a c o n c e p t a s th e rig h t tru th . F o r
th a t b e c o m e s “ a k n o w le d g e ” o r “ a th e o ry ” w h ic h is b e lie v e d b y th e w o rld
w e st th a t is “ th e M id d le E a st p e o p le is a te rro rist” , o r “ M a la y a n is la z y ” . T h is c o n c e p t is fo u n d e d
b y th e ru le r w h o is d o m in a n t in fo rm in g a v ie w o f so c ie t y to w a rd s th e o b je c t, so th a t th e so c ie ty
p ro p e rly e n tru sts th e v ie w o r “ k n o w le d g e ” . T h e n a tu ra ln e ss re p re se n ts th e p ro c e ss th a t b e c o m e s
v a lid a n d b e tru ste d .
S in a r (2 0 0 8 : 8 4 ) sa y s th a t in th e c o n te x t o f id e o lo g y , th e re is a re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n
la n g u a g e w ith th e so c ie ty a n d th e ru le r. T h e p o w e r c a n fo rm
th e v ie w
o f so c ie ty to w a rd s th e
o b je c t, so th a t th e so c ie ty b e lie v e s th e v ie w b e c o m e s th e tru th .
2 .3 M e t a f u n c t i o n s o f L a n g u a g e
In e v e ry la n g u a g e u sa g e in th e so c ia l c o n te x ts se m io tic s, m e ta fu n c tio n o f la n g u a g e th a t
is
p re se n t to
la n g u a g e .
e x p la in
The
2
th in g s
m e ta fu n c tio n s
th a t in flu e n c e s
as
th e
each
th e o re tic a l
o th e r b e tw e e n th e la n g u a g e a n d a n o th e r
concept
g iv e
som eone
th e
c a p a b ility
u n d e rsta n d th e la n g u a g e a n d a n o th e r la n g u a g e , a lso a s a m e e tin g w h ic h h a s fo rm e d
g ram m ar. In
o th e r w o rd s, th e
m e ta fu n c tio n
c o n c e p t w h ic h
c o n n e c ts
in te rn a l a n d its fu n c tio n to th e so c ia l c o n te x t se m io tic s. T h e sy ste m
sy ste m
o f lin g u istic m e a n in g is S e m a n tic s th a t is a fo rm
th e
fo rm s
to
shape of
o f la n g u a g e
o f so c ia l se m io tic s is th e
o f re a liz a tio n fro m
so c ia l se m io tic s
(S in a r 2 0 0 8 : 2 8 ).
The
m e ta fu n c tio n
has
an
im p lic a tio n
e ith e r
sin ta g m a tic . P a ra d ig m a tic a lly , th e y a rra n g e th e sy ste m
th e
re la tio n sh ip
of
p a ra d ig m a tic
or
o f th e c h a in o f th e se le c tio n g ro u p th a t
re lie s o n e a c h o th e r, w ith th e in t