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Sustainable labour-based infrastructure A paper prepared for presentation at workshops on the implementation arrangements and concepts on programmes for poverty eradication in Kenya, with focus on Suba, Narok, and Isiolo districts. 17th-25th November 1997 International Labour Organisation Advisory Support, Information Services, and Training (ASIST) Nairobi, Kenya Copyright © International Labour Organisation 1997 Publications of the International Labour Organisation enjoy copyright under Protocol 2 of the Universal Copyright Convention. Nevertheless, short excerpts from them may be reproduced without authorisation, on condition that the source is indicated. For rights of reproduction,

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  Sustainable labour-based infrastructure A paper prepared for presentation at workshops on the implementation arrangements and

concepts on programmes for poverty eradication in Kenya, with focus on Suba, Narok, and Isiolo

districts. 17th-25th November 1997

• - 1. W HAT IS LABOUR BASED TECHNOLOGY ?

  The term “labour-based” is used to describe a technology in which labour, supported by light equipment, is used as a cost-effective method of constructing and maintaining infrastructure of a required standard. The definition thus has three components:

  1. Labour, and very often local labour, is the used whenever feasible

  2. The construction and maintenance should be cost-effective. That is: using labour-based methods should be cheaper than equipment-based methods.

  Considering the low wage levels in Suba, Narok, and Isiolo districts, labour- based technologies are likely to be cheaper for most construction and

  1 maintenance activities .

  3. The infrastructure should be of the required standard, and not of poor quality. Labour-based technology has successfully been used in many countries, and has been used to construct and maintain feeder roads, tracks and paths, drainage systems, sewerage and sanitation systems, irrigation systems, and houses. In Kenya, however, the experience has concentrated on the development of access roads.

  Labour-based technology is very appropriate for participative approaches. Communities can construct and maintain infrastructure themselves, using local labour and resources, with limited technical assistance. By using local labour in construction, skills are created for maintenance.

  On the other hand, it must also be realised that labour-based methods are more management intensive than machine based methods.

1 In roadworks, labour-based methods are cheaper than equipment-based techniques in

  most developing countries. Even in South Africa, which has relatively high daily wages (more than US$10 per day), labour-based roadworks are cheaper than equipment based methods.

  The Kenyan experience

  Kenya has a long history in labour-based roadworks, dating back to 1974. By now, about 12,000 km of rural feeder and access roads have been constructed using labour-based methods. This resulted in the creation of 20,000 man years of rural employment per year, thus contributing highly to rural employment creation and poverty alleviation.

2 Roadworks are implemented by the Ministry of Public Works and Housing

  (MOPWH), through District Works Officers and District Roads Engineers. The District Roads Engineers, and most technicians and overseers have been trained in labour-based technology. Communities have also improved their skills in construction and maintenance of rural access roads through participation in this construction process.

  Training is provided by Kisii Training Centre (KTC), which falls under the Kenya Institute of Highways and Building Technology (KIHABT), which is the training department of the Ministry. KTC has an international reputation, and organises international training for engineers, technicians and trainers from English-speaking countries all over Sub-Saharan Africa.

  The selection of roads to be maintained is taken by the local authority, on the advice of the District Roads Engineer, who should have consulted the District, Divisional, and Locational Development Committees. However, it is unclear how successful this approach is. A newly developed strategy (Roads 2000) tries to further develop local planning for maintenance. In the strategy, all prioritised roads together should form a functioning road network (the so-called “network approach”).

  Conclusions

  Improving access roads in Suba, Narok, and Isiolo districts are important in further developing the districts. Using local labour and local resources will create local employment and assist in alleviating poverty. Roadworks in these districts should make use of the existing experiences of the MOPWH, through the District Works Officers, the District Roads Engineers and Kisii Training Centre. In principle, the works should thus not depend purely on self-help initiatives, and labour should be paid (see also next session).

  The programme can play a significant role, especially in the following areas:

  1. Assist in improving local planning systems, according to the proposed “network approach” of the Ministry (see above). Any plan should of course be realistic, considering the limited available funds.

  2. Promote the use of labour-based roadworks in the districts, in interaction with the MOPWH and donor agencies. For any maintenance plan developed at the ₂ local level, funds should be made available.

  These refer to gazetted roads only. There are also many kilometres of tea, coffee, and forestry roads, in addition to those under the Ministry of Local Government (both rural and urban).

  What is community-based infrastructure?

  Various kinds of infrastructure directly benefit the community. These may include hospitals, schools, community houses, water points, latrines, electricity,

  3

  and roads, paths, and bridges within the boundary of a community . These kinds of infrastructure can be constructed and maintained by the community, with assistance of the Local Authority. To construct and maintain community-based infrastructure, the community needs first to be organised. It needs to elect a committee to represent it and to plan and co-ordinate the works. Since construction and maintenance requires funds, this committee should be legally registered and be seen to act as a strong representative of the community at large. Such a committee is usually registered as a Community Based Organisation (CBO). Through this CBO, the community can prioritise what needs to be done. The Local Authority can help the community in these activities.

  Once the community decides what they want to do, the Local Authority or a donor agency can give a contract to the CBO to construct the infrastructure. Alternatively the CBO may decide to give the construction contract to a small- scale private enterprise.

  The community should contribute a part of the cost, depending upon their capacity to pay. Community members may contribute in cash or through labour, or both. In principle, labour should always be paid to prevent “forced labour”, a situation in which the poorer sections of the community ends up providing free labour for the benefit of the whole community. Equally important is to ensure that the community has the capacity to fund sustainable maintenance of the created assets. If it does not, then the infrastructure will gradually fall into disrepair and disuse; in this case it is better not to start constructing such infrastructure at all. One effective way to enable CBOs to gather revenue for maintenance is to develop appropriate by-laws which must then be ratified by the Ministry of Local Government. The community should be given technical assistance and training in construction and maintenance of infrastructure, as well as in management and financial control.

  The Kenyan experience

  Unfortunately, communities have hardly been involved in the management of “their” infrastructure in Kenya in a structured manner. The Government has not yet developed a strategy to assist local communities in managing infrastructure on their behalf. However, the Government is to an increasing extent subcontracting public works, and the time thus seems ripe for such a policy as well.

3 It should be noted that most access roads do not directly benefit one community. Many

  people make use of them. For this reason, it is generally unrealistic to expect one community to take responsibility for the construction and maintenance of an access road. Some NGOs and projects have piloted the approach. It will be worthwhile studying their experiences.

  Conclusion

  The community can take the initiative in creating and maintaining infrastructure that directly benefits them, if the Government enables such initiatives. The Local Authorities can assist them through technical advice and funding. The programme can assist in developing community-based infrastructure by setting up systems in which the roles of each party (Local Authorities, NGOs, and CBOs) are clearly defined. This requires studying the existing and previous experiences of projects and NGOs.

  The programme can support setting up and strengthening:

• CBOs to represent the communities
• systems in the Local Authority to support CBOs
• training of staff in local government, NGOs and CBOs in participatory techniques and labour-based technology and management
• training for engineers, technicians, and overseers in working with communities • policies to promote community-based infrastructure. The programme can also source funding for pilot projects to test the approach.

4. P LANNING LOCAL TRANSPORT NEEDS The Kenya experience In Kenya, most rural transport takes place by foot and is done mainly by women.

  On average, women spend more than three hours per day in transport. They collect firewood and water, go to the market, etc. To cater for this transport need, the construction of roads is not sufficient. Indeed, it hardly takes into account that most people do not have access to motorised transport.

  Unfortunately, this fact has largely been ignored in Kenya, and infrastructure provision has very strongly concentrated on the construction of access roads. Other infrastructure, such as foot bridges, paths, and bicycle lanes, has hardly been developed.

  For a few years now, however, this shortcoming has been realised, and as a result the “National Forum Group for rural transport and development” (NFG) has been established. The group is co-ordinated by the Ministry of Planning, and brings together Government officials, NGOs, and practitioners. Rural transport has also been incorporated into the National Development Plan (1997-2001, page 110/ 111), providing the scope for a structured approach to rural travel and transport issues. In addition, various NGOs have established pilot projects.

  Analysing, prioritising and solving rural transport requires a participatory planning system. This system should find out what interventions are required by the local communities. What infrastructure is needed: a road, a footbridge, a path, or bicycle lane? Should bicycles be made cheaper by lowering taxes, and should local production of donkey carts be promoted? Or should a school, water point, or hospital be built close to the village to alleviate the transport need? One such planning system has been developed by the ILO, and piloted in Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia and other countries. The system is called “Integrated Rural Accessibility Planning”.

  Conclusion

  Solving the transport needs in Suba, Narok, and Isiolo districts requires insight in the actual transport needs, through participatory study and planning. The programme can assist in solving the transport needs by supporting the setting up, together with the NFG, of:

• local studies into transport needs
• participatory planing systems to address rural transport needs (to decide on what interventions are required)
• a pilot project to address transport needs
• training for planners, engineers, technicians and overseers on rural transport and the labour/community based construction and maintenance of footpaths/bridges and bicycle lanes • a policy on rural transport, addressing the real needs of the rural population.

  5. O - THER LABOUR BASED INFRASTRUCTURE

  Other infrastructure that can be constructed and maintained using local labour includes irrigation systems and environmental protection systems. Various countries have had pilot projects in these fields, indicating a huge potential in these areas. Especially small-scale irrigation systems, managed by farmers, have proven very successful, as well as various afforestation programmes. A recent ILO study in Kenya (1996) indicated the need to promote labour-based technologies in these areas, since the perceived potential was huge.

  Conclusion

  The programme can assist in setting up appropriate participatory systems to plan such interventions, and can study possibilities for labour-based technologies in these areas.

  6. C ONCLUSION Resources available

  The Ministry of Public Works and Housing has a long experience in labour- based roadworks. This experience will be very useful in adopting labour-based approaches in constructing and maintaining access roads in Suba, Narok, and Isiolo districts, and will contribute highly to the creation of employment and the alleviation of poverty. The experience in labour-based roadworks has created resources which are also useful in the construction of other infrastructure. These resources include:

• experienced technical staff
• a rural community knowledgeable in labour based roadworks • available training institutions for labour based roadworks. These resources can be used in studying, promoting and developing the use of labour-based technology in other kinds of infrastructure.

  An integrated approach to poverty eradication

  Infrastructure is one of the seven components of the programme for poverty eradication in Kenya. It is realised that infrastructure relates to all other components, indicating the need for strong co-ordination between the components at the local level.

  To promote integration between the various components, it is essential to first and foremost set up participatory planning systems at the local level. Through participatory planning, activities to eradicate poverty can be prioritised according to local needs, and responsibilities can be defined.

  In relation to infrastructure, the need for access roads, village paths, bicycle lanes, community-based infrastructure and other kinds of infrastructure should thus be prioritised according to the local needs. The responsibility of the local authorities (including District Works Officers), CBOs, NGOs and other parties can be defined in the construction and maintenance of infrastructure. This responsibility depends very much on the kind of infrastructure, as discussed in this paper. With activities to eradicate poverty prioritised, those activities that fit within the existing budget can be implemented. For activities that do not fit in the regular budget and funding capacity of the local communities, additional funding can be sourced from donor agencies, on a pilot basis. However, it should be realised that the subsequent maintenance costs should be within the funding capacity of the Government and local communities if the whole process is to be sustainable.