An Analysis Of Phrasal Verbs Found In Khaled Hosseini’s Novel A Thousand Splendid Suns
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Grammar
Palmer (1976:146) defines that grammar is a field of linguistics that
involves all the various things that make up the rules of language. “Grammar and
rules” is, of course, probably the most common association, and in pedagogy,
grammar rules certainly have their places. For one thing, they often provide students
with security, something to hold onto. They provide useful guidance about how
language is structured. However, there are limits to their usefulness. For one thing,
they deal mostly with appropriateness of use. They are signals to correct the
statement that “grammar has to do with rules”. Subfields of linguistics that are
considered a part of grammar include syntax, phonetics, morphology, and semantics.
One of grammar’s studies is verb. Biber, Conrad, and Leech (2002:103)
state that there are three kinds of verbs, such as lexical verb, auxiliary verb and
primary verb. From those three kinds of verbs, lexical verbs are the most common
and often occur as multi-word units. Biber, Conrad, and Leech (2002:123) state that
there are a group of multi-word verbs made from a verb plus another word or words.
The main category of multi-word verbs consists of phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs
and phrasal- prepositional verb.
Phrasal verbs are multi-word verbs made of lexical verb + adverbial particle
(for examples: put out, take off, find out or pick up). The words which follow the
lexical verbs are called particles. When these particles are independently, they have
literal meanings signifying location or direction (for examples: out, up, down, over,
around, off). However, in phrasal verbs they are commonly used with less literal
meanings. For example, the meaning of blow up, italized word-pair take on a
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meaning (explode) beyond the original dictionary definitions of its parts. The word
up is not being used as a preposition here or to signify a direction.
Prepositional verbs contain of a lexical verb followed by a preposition, such
as, talk about, look at, said to, and bases on. There are two major structural patterns
for prepositional verbs:
Pattern 1: NP + verb + preposition+ NP, for examples:
(1). He always talks about [it].
(2). She looks at me.
Pattern 2: NP + verb+ NP + preposition + NP, for examples:
(1). He said farewell to [us] on this very spot.
(2). But McGaughy bases his prediction on [first-hand experience].
Phrasal-prepositional verbs contain both an adverbial particle and a
preposition, as in look forward to, get out of, and hand over to. There are two major
structural patterns:
Pattern 1: NP + verb + particle + preposition + NP, for examples:
(1). Oh I shall look forward to [this now].
(2). Perhaps I can get out of [it] without having to tell her anything.
Pattern 2: NP + verb + NP + particle + preposition + NP, for example:
(1). I could hand him over to [Sadiq].
2.2 Phrasal Verbs
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The term phrasal verb is commonly applied to define verb plus particle
constructions which has a single semantic unit. This semantic unit cannot be
understood based on the meanings of the individual parts in isolation, but rather it
must be taken as a whole. Many grammarians also define phrasal verbs which are
drawn below:
2.2.1 The Definition of Phrasal Verbs
•
Murcia (1983:265) states that traditional grammarians define a phrasal verb
as a verb followed by a particle (variously described as a preposition, an
adverb, or some combination of the two).
•
Biber, et.al (2002:124) say phrasal verbs consist of a verb followed by an
adverbial particle.
•
Wishon and Burks (1980:319) state phrasal verbs are combinations of verb
plus particles that regularly occur together. They usually have a meaning of
their own different from that of either of the component parts. They are
essentially new verbs.
•
Greenbaun and Quirk (2003:336) state one common type of multi-word verb
is phrasal verb consisting of a verb plus an adverb particle.
•
Gray (2004:129) says phrasal verbs are combinations of verbs and particles.
Common particles include in, on, off, up, down, and out. Verb + particle
combinations carry their own meanings.
•
Vlad (1998:93) describes phrasal verbs as combinations of a lexical verb and
adverbial particle. Verbs as give up, fall out, take in are considered by him to
be multi- words verbs that are equivalent to one lexical item.
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•
Heaton (1985:103) considers that phrasal verbs are compound verbs that
result from combining a verb with an adverb or a preposition, the resulting
compound verb being idiomatic.
2.2.2 Characteristics of Phrasal Verbs
According to Biber, Conrad and Leech (2002:124-126) explains that the
meanings and structures of phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs, and free combinations
differ in many ways. One way to distinguish them by defining characteristics of
phrasal verb, namely whether or not there is an idiomatic meaning and whether or
not particle movement is possible.
The nature of a multi-word expression is determined by whether or not
there is a following noun phrase. When there is no following noun phrase (e.g. shut
up or go away), there are only two possible interpretations. It must be either an
intransitive phrasal verb, or free combination of verb + adverb. If there is a following
noun phrase (e.g. find out the meaning), there are three possible interpretations.
Either it is a transitive phrasal verb, a transitive prepositional verb, or a free
combination of verb + adverbial prepositional phrase.
1. An idiomatic meaning
It is especially useful when there is no following noun phrase to distinguish
between an intransitive phrasal verb and a free combination. Intransitive phrasal
verbs usually have an idiomatic meaning while the words in free combinations retain
their own meanings. For examples, the intransitive phrasal verbs, come on, shut up,
get up, get out, break down, and grow up. All have idiomatic meanings beyond the
separate meanings of the two parts (for examples: grow up means to act/ become
more mature, not literally to grow in an upward direction). In contrast, both the verb
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and the adverb have separate meanings in free combinations like come back, go back,
go in, look back.
1. Intransitive phrasal verbs
In intransitive phrasal verbs, there is no noun or noun phrase which places
as object. But as usual phrasal verbs, they have idiomatic meanings, for example:
(1a). Shut up you fool!
(1b). Come on! Tell us then!
2. Intransitive free combinations
In intransitive free combinations, there is no noun or noun phrase which
follows the free combinations and they still retain their own meaning, for example:
(2a). Come back, or I’ll fire.
(2b). He was afraid to look back.
2. Particle movement
When multi-word combinations have following noun phrase, tests using
structure are more important than those involving idiomatic meaning. The first
important test is particle movement: that is, whether the adverbial particle can be
placed both before and after the object noun phrase. Transitive phrasal verbs allow
particle movement. In the following examples the object noun phrase is shown in
brackets.
1). I went to Eddie’s girl’s house to get back [my wool plaid shirt].
2). I’ve got to get [this one] back for her mom.
3). He came back and picked up [the note].
4). He picked [the phone] up.
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When the object of a transitive phrasal verb is a pronoun, the adverbial
particle is almost always after the object, such as in the following examples:
1). I’ll pick them up.
2). So I got it back.
Particle movement is not possible with prepositional verbs. Instead, the
particle (actually, a preposition) always comes before the noun phrase that is the
object, such as in the following examples:
1). Well those kids are waiting for their bus.
2).
It was hard to look at him.
3).
Availability depends on their being close to the root.
According to Greenbaun and Quirk (2003:340), there are other
characteristics to define phrasal verb:
1. The particle of a prepositional verb must precede the prepositional object (unless
the particle is stranded), but the particle of a phrasal verb can generally precede or
follow the direct object, such as in the following examples:
(1a). She called on her friends.
Sentence (1a) is example of prepositional verb with the particle precedes the
prepositional object.
(1b). *She called her friends on.
Sentence (1b) is not prepositional verb because particle of prepositional verb cannot
follow the direct object.
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(2a). She called up her friends.
Sentence (2a) is example of phrasal verb with the particle precedes the object)
(2b). She called her friends up.
Sentence (2b) is example of phrasal verb with the particle follows the object.
2. When the object is a personal pronoun, the particle precedes the personal pronoun
in a prepositional verb, but it follows the personal pronoun in phrasal verbs, such as
in the following examples:
(1a). She called on them.
Sentence (1a) is example of prepositional verb with particle precedes the personal
pronoun.
(1b). *She called them on.
Sentence (1b) is not prepositional verb because the particle cannot follow the
personal pronoun of prepositional verb.
(2a). She called them up.
Sentence (2a) is example of phrasal verb with particle follows the personal pronoun.
(2b). *She called up them
Sentence (2b) is not phrasal verb because the particle cannot precede the personal
pronoun of phrasal verb.
3. An adverb (functioning adjunct) can often be inserted between verb and particle in
prepositional verbs, but not in phrasal verbs, such as in the following examples:
(1a). She called angrily on her friends.
Sentence (1a) is example of prepositional verb with adverb is inserted between verb
and particle.
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(1b). *She called angrily up her friends.
Sentence (1b) is not phrasal verb because an adverb cannot be inserted between verb
and particle.
4. The particle of a phrasal verb cannot precede a relative pronoun or whinterrogative, such as in the following examples:
(1a). The friends on whom she called.
Sentence (1a) is example of prepositional verb with particle precedes relative
pronoun.
(1b). *The friends up whom she called.
Sentence (1b) is not phrasal verb because particle cannot precede the relative
pronoun.
(2a). On which friends did she call?
Sentence (2a) is example of prepositional verb with particle precedes relative
pronoun in interrogative sentence.
(2b). *Up which friends did she call?
Sentence (2b) is not phrasal verb because particle cannot precede the relative
pronoun.
2.2.3 Types of Phrasal Verbs
According to Greenbaun and Quirk (1973), or Veres (1998) or Vlad (1998),
phrasal verbs are divided into transitive and intransitive phrasal verbs.
1. Intransitive phrasal verb
In traditional grammars, an intransitive verb is an action verb that takes no
object. One common type of multi- word verb is the intransitive phrasal verb
consisting of a verb plus a particle (verb+adverb), for examples:
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a). The children were sitting down.
b). The plane has now taken off.
c). Go off to bed now.
Heaton (1985) claims that normally, the particle cannot be separated from
its verb (Drink quickly up); though particles used as intensifiers or perfectives or
referring to direction can be modified by intensifiers (Go right on).
2. Transitive phrasal verb
Transitive verb is a verb that takes both a subject and an object. Therefore,
phrasal verbs are transitive when they take an object, for examples:
a). We will set up a new unit.
b). Drink up your milk
c). He looked up his former friends.
According to Veres (1998) the pattern of transitive phrasal verbs is: verb +
adverbial particle + object (VAO), for examples
a). Turn down the radio! (reduce the volume)
b). How shall I not back up my best friend? (support).
According to Greenbaun and Quirk (1973:122) and Veres (1998:87) provides
that VAO order is used:
1. When the object is long.
E.g. You have to put off your plan of removing her to another
hospital.
2. When the object is an –ing clause
E.g. He went on speaking.
3. In fixed phrases
E.g. keep up appearances.
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4. When the verb phrase is strongly idiomatic.
E.g. We made out a sturdy man.
But VAO order is also possible:
a. With many phrasal verbs.
E.g. Turn the radio down!
b.When the direct object is a pronoun or a proper name (the pronominal
direct object always precede the adverbial particle.)
E.g. They brought him up with much care and love. (educate).
If the phrasal verb is transitive, the pattern will include N, PRON, or REFL.
There are 4 patterns of transitive phrasal verbs that are possible used:
1. Pattern V+ N+ ADV
In this pattern, the verb has an object (N), and the object comes before
the adverb (ADV).
E.g. They pay half of their income in rent out.
2. Pattern V+ ADV+ N
In this pattern, the verb also has an object (N), and that the object
comes after the adverb (ADV).
E.g. First, add up all your regular payments.
3. Pattern V+ PRON+ ADV
In this pattern, the verb must have an object which can be a personal
pronoun (PRON), and that the object comes before the adverb (ADV).
E.g. They called me in for questioning.
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4. Pattern V+ REFL+ ADV
In this pattern, the verb has an object which must be a reflexive
pronoun (REFL), and that the object must come before the adverb (ADV).
E.g. I shut myself away in a library that night and wrote a letter.
(Collins Dictionary, VI).
In answering the problem about types of phrasal verbs found in this novel.
The writer uses the theories from Greenbaun and Quirk (1973) and also Collins
(1991)
2.3 Particles
Particle is a function word that does not belong to one of the main
classes of words, (such as noun, pronouns, and verbs) but has grammatical
purpose. As a function word, we can see the functions of particle in phrasal
verbs to give more meaning to the verb. Further explanations of particles will
be drawn below:
2.3.1 Word Classes of Particle
Olteanu (2012:33) states that due to the double nature of phrasal verbs, that
is sometimes adverbial and sometimes prepositional, this section proposes an
overview on the matter of word classes of particles.
If the particle is a preposition, a noun group follows it. This noun group is
called a prepositional object.
If the particle is an adverb the pattern will include ADV but if the particle is
a preposition the particle will include PREP, for examples:
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1). move off is labeled V+ ADV: The fleet of cars prepared to move off.
2). rely on is labeled V+ PREP: She is forced to rely on her mother's money.
There are cases in which the particle can be used either as an adverb or as
preposition, for examples:
1a). came in is labeled V+ ADV: Jeremy came in looking worried. (The
particle ‘in’ is used as an adverb).
1b). come in is labeled V+ PREP: Come in the house, she said. (The particle
‘in’ is used as a preposition). (Collins Dictionary, VII).
2.3.2 Positioning of particles
When the phrasal verb is transitive, it is important to know where to put the
particle in relation to the object: does the particle come between the verbs or does it
follow the verb?
The patterns for transitive phrasal verbs indicate the order of elements. For
example, the pattern V+ ADV + N shows that the particle is situated between the
verb and its object: E.g. I was cleaning out my desk at the office.
If the pattern is V+ N+ ADV, the particle is positioned after the object.
E.g.: I spent three days cleaning our flat out. Clean out is a phrasal verb in which a
particle can come in front or after the object, but there are some phrasal verbs that
have only one pattern. For example put up, which is labeled V+ ADV+ N: We had
put up a fierce struggle.
If the object is a pronoun, then the particle is always positioned after the
object. (V+ PRON+ ADV). An example is set down: The colonel lifted his cup,
glared at it, and set it down again. (Collins Dictionary, VII).
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2.3.3 The function of particles
Particles have function as adverbs to modify the verbs with which they are
associated. In accordance with the statement, Heaton (1985:112) notes that although
most adverbial particles have the same form as their corresponding prepositions they
do not denote a relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word,
functioning as adverbs. The following examples illustrate them.
a). In the first of the sentences below, down functions as an adverbial particle, while
in the second sentence down is a preposition.
E.g. Peter ran down as he saw me waiting.
Peter ran down the stairs as soon as he saw me waiting
b). In the next two sentences, off functions first as an adverbial particle and then as a
preposition:
E.g. She took off her coat.
She took her coat off the hook.
In the first sentence, off shows the direction in which she moved the coat, while off
in the second sentence indicates the relationship between coat and hook.
The function of on is also taken into consideration by Heaton:
E.g. Peter turned on the boastful youth and struck him.
In this sentence, on is a preposition and shows the relation between the
boastful youth and the verb turned. The boastful youth is the object of the
preposition on, not of the verb turned.
c). ln spite of its different positions on functions as an adverbial particle in both
sentences below. On modifies the verb turn, tap being the object of the verb turn in
both cases.
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E.g. John turned the tap on.
John turned on the hot- water tap.
d). The following example illustrates how slight the difference frequently is between
prepositions and adverbial particles. In both sentences, through functions as an
adverbial particle modifying the verb read. In the second sentence, however,
through could easily be confused in function with a preposition.
E.g. I have read your essay through and think it is good.
I have read through your essay and think that it is good.
Heaton (1985:114) considers that adverbial particles differ from other
adverbs in certain ways. Most of them are best regarded as helping to form a new
verb, for they change or add to the meaning of the verb, however slightly. Thus, the
particle is really an integral part of the phrasal verb, separable often in word- order
but nevertheless constituting a single unit. Heaton proposes five ways in which most
particles function:
1). Many cause a verb to assume a new or subsidiary meaning, for examples:
a. The widow carried on as if nothing had happened.
b. I'm done for (warned out).
c. Long dresses have gone out these years (ceased to be fashionable).
2). Some particles assume a new or special meaning with a verb but do not change
the normal meaning of that verb, for examples:
a. He talked down to his pupils.
b. Speak out ('loudly')
As the verb retains its usual meaning in such cases it is often possible to deduce the
meaning of the whole collocation. (E.g. look over = 'inspect'; switch = 'connect'.)
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3). Other particles provide stress emphasis or a sense of completion, for examples:
a. Let me finish this off before.
b. Hurry up or we shall be late
4). Other function in a similar way to ordinary adverbs, helping to form a collocation
which maintains a literal meaning, for examples:
a. She got in her car and drove away without speaking.
b. She decided to go out and see her.
c. He jumped up as soon as I entered
5). A number are similar in function to prepositions. Although they are linked to the
verb and conform to the same rules of word order as other adverbial noun, a noun
equivalent following them is often understood, (though not expressed), for examples:
a. Take your hat off. (your head)
b. She came down (the stairs) to greet the guests.
Heaton (1985:116) states that consequently, the phrasal verb must be taken
as a unit because its meaning can rarely be inferred from the knowledge of the verb
and the particle separately.
In answering the problem about function of particle in phrasal constructions,
the writer applies this theory.
2.4 Semantic distinction
According to Palmer (1976:1) states that semantics is the technical term
used to refer to the study of meaning. Unfortunately, ‘meaning’ covers a variety of
aspects of language, and there is no very general agreement either about what
meaning is or about the way in which it should be described. In accordance with
those definitions, Fraser distincts phrasal verbs semantically in three groups.
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Fraser (1976) and others have pointed out that phrasal verbs exhibit
interesting semantic differences. Fraser, for example, divides them into three groups.
1. Literal phrasal verbs
Literal phrasal verbs are those items where the particle retains its literal
adverbial meaning as the up does in the following example:
a). I hung up the pictures on the wall.
b). Mariam had climbed a chair and taken down her mother’s Chinese tea
set.
Some other examples of literal phrasal verbs are: sit down, dish out, hand out, and
take down. These phrasal verbs are among the easiest for nonnative speakers to
understand and acquire.
2. Completive phrasal verbs
Completive phrasal verbs are those the particle indicates completed action.
The particles up, out, off, and down all seem to be used this way; however, up is the
one most frequently used in this function. The adverbial particle is added to
emphasize that the action should start, and continue until the action is completed. For
example:
a). I tore up the piece of paper.
b). The radio turned off.
Some other completive phrasal verbs: mix up, wind up, wear out, fade out, burn
down, run down, cut off, turn off, etc.
3. Figurative phrasal verbs
Phrasal verbs are considered “figurative” when there is no systematic way
of semantically associating the verb and the particle. This is true of the following
example:
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a). She looked up the information.
b). The Lights came on.
Some other figurative phrasal verbs are turn up (arrive, appear), catch on
(understand), give in (surrender); look over (review), etc. Such phrasal verbs are the
most difficult ones for ESL/EFL students to master.
In answering the problem about types of semantic distinctions of phrasal
verbs found in this novel, the writer applies this theory.
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2.1 Grammar
Palmer (1976:146) defines that grammar is a field of linguistics that
involves all the various things that make up the rules of language. “Grammar and
rules” is, of course, probably the most common association, and in pedagogy,
grammar rules certainly have their places. For one thing, they often provide students
with security, something to hold onto. They provide useful guidance about how
language is structured. However, there are limits to their usefulness. For one thing,
they deal mostly with appropriateness of use. They are signals to correct the
statement that “grammar has to do with rules”. Subfields of linguistics that are
considered a part of grammar include syntax, phonetics, morphology, and semantics.
One of grammar’s studies is verb. Biber, Conrad, and Leech (2002:103)
state that there are three kinds of verbs, such as lexical verb, auxiliary verb and
primary verb. From those three kinds of verbs, lexical verbs are the most common
and often occur as multi-word units. Biber, Conrad, and Leech (2002:123) state that
there are a group of multi-word verbs made from a verb plus another word or words.
The main category of multi-word verbs consists of phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs
and phrasal- prepositional verb.
Phrasal verbs are multi-word verbs made of lexical verb + adverbial particle
(for examples: put out, take off, find out or pick up). The words which follow the
lexical verbs are called particles. When these particles are independently, they have
literal meanings signifying location or direction (for examples: out, up, down, over,
around, off). However, in phrasal verbs they are commonly used with less literal
meanings. For example, the meaning of blow up, italized word-pair take on a
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meaning (explode) beyond the original dictionary definitions of its parts. The word
up is not being used as a preposition here or to signify a direction.
Prepositional verbs contain of a lexical verb followed by a preposition, such
as, talk about, look at, said to, and bases on. There are two major structural patterns
for prepositional verbs:
Pattern 1: NP + verb + preposition+ NP, for examples:
(1). He always talks about [it].
(2). She looks at me.
Pattern 2: NP + verb+ NP + preposition + NP, for examples:
(1). He said farewell to [us] on this very spot.
(2). But McGaughy bases his prediction on [first-hand experience].
Phrasal-prepositional verbs contain both an adverbial particle and a
preposition, as in look forward to, get out of, and hand over to. There are two major
structural patterns:
Pattern 1: NP + verb + particle + preposition + NP, for examples:
(1). Oh I shall look forward to [this now].
(2). Perhaps I can get out of [it] without having to tell her anything.
Pattern 2: NP + verb + NP + particle + preposition + NP, for example:
(1). I could hand him over to [Sadiq].
2.2 Phrasal Verbs
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The term phrasal verb is commonly applied to define verb plus particle
constructions which has a single semantic unit. This semantic unit cannot be
understood based on the meanings of the individual parts in isolation, but rather it
must be taken as a whole. Many grammarians also define phrasal verbs which are
drawn below:
2.2.1 The Definition of Phrasal Verbs
•
Murcia (1983:265) states that traditional grammarians define a phrasal verb
as a verb followed by a particle (variously described as a preposition, an
adverb, or some combination of the two).
•
Biber, et.al (2002:124) say phrasal verbs consist of a verb followed by an
adverbial particle.
•
Wishon and Burks (1980:319) state phrasal verbs are combinations of verb
plus particles that regularly occur together. They usually have a meaning of
their own different from that of either of the component parts. They are
essentially new verbs.
•
Greenbaun and Quirk (2003:336) state one common type of multi-word verb
is phrasal verb consisting of a verb plus an adverb particle.
•
Gray (2004:129) says phrasal verbs are combinations of verbs and particles.
Common particles include in, on, off, up, down, and out. Verb + particle
combinations carry their own meanings.
•
Vlad (1998:93) describes phrasal verbs as combinations of a lexical verb and
adverbial particle. Verbs as give up, fall out, take in are considered by him to
be multi- words verbs that are equivalent to one lexical item.
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•
Heaton (1985:103) considers that phrasal verbs are compound verbs that
result from combining a verb with an adverb or a preposition, the resulting
compound verb being idiomatic.
2.2.2 Characteristics of Phrasal Verbs
According to Biber, Conrad and Leech (2002:124-126) explains that the
meanings and structures of phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs, and free combinations
differ in many ways. One way to distinguish them by defining characteristics of
phrasal verb, namely whether or not there is an idiomatic meaning and whether or
not particle movement is possible.
The nature of a multi-word expression is determined by whether or not
there is a following noun phrase. When there is no following noun phrase (e.g. shut
up or go away), there are only two possible interpretations. It must be either an
intransitive phrasal verb, or free combination of verb + adverb. If there is a following
noun phrase (e.g. find out the meaning), there are three possible interpretations.
Either it is a transitive phrasal verb, a transitive prepositional verb, or a free
combination of verb + adverbial prepositional phrase.
1. An idiomatic meaning
It is especially useful when there is no following noun phrase to distinguish
between an intransitive phrasal verb and a free combination. Intransitive phrasal
verbs usually have an idiomatic meaning while the words in free combinations retain
their own meanings. For examples, the intransitive phrasal verbs, come on, shut up,
get up, get out, break down, and grow up. All have idiomatic meanings beyond the
separate meanings of the two parts (for examples: grow up means to act/ become
more mature, not literally to grow in an upward direction). In contrast, both the verb
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and the adverb have separate meanings in free combinations like come back, go back,
go in, look back.
1. Intransitive phrasal verbs
In intransitive phrasal verbs, there is no noun or noun phrase which places
as object. But as usual phrasal verbs, they have idiomatic meanings, for example:
(1a). Shut up you fool!
(1b). Come on! Tell us then!
2. Intransitive free combinations
In intransitive free combinations, there is no noun or noun phrase which
follows the free combinations and they still retain their own meaning, for example:
(2a). Come back, or I’ll fire.
(2b). He was afraid to look back.
2. Particle movement
When multi-word combinations have following noun phrase, tests using
structure are more important than those involving idiomatic meaning. The first
important test is particle movement: that is, whether the adverbial particle can be
placed both before and after the object noun phrase. Transitive phrasal verbs allow
particle movement. In the following examples the object noun phrase is shown in
brackets.
1). I went to Eddie’s girl’s house to get back [my wool plaid shirt].
2). I’ve got to get [this one] back for her mom.
3). He came back and picked up [the note].
4). He picked [the phone] up.
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When the object of a transitive phrasal verb is a pronoun, the adverbial
particle is almost always after the object, such as in the following examples:
1). I’ll pick them up.
2). So I got it back.
Particle movement is not possible with prepositional verbs. Instead, the
particle (actually, a preposition) always comes before the noun phrase that is the
object, such as in the following examples:
1). Well those kids are waiting for their bus.
2).
It was hard to look at him.
3).
Availability depends on their being close to the root.
According to Greenbaun and Quirk (2003:340), there are other
characteristics to define phrasal verb:
1. The particle of a prepositional verb must precede the prepositional object (unless
the particle is stranded), but the particle of a phrasal verb can generally precede or
follow the direct object, such as in the following examples:
(1a). She called on her friends.
Sentence (1a) is example of prepositional verb with the particle precedes the
prepositional object.
(1b). *She called her friends on.
Sentence (1b) is not prepositional verb because particle of prepositional verb cannot
follow the direct object.
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(2a). She called up her friends.
Sentence (2a) is example of phrasal verb with the particle precedes the object)
(2b). She called her friends up.
Sentence (2b) is example of phrasal verb with the particle follows the object.
2. When the object is a personal pronoun, the particle precedes the personal pronoun
in a prepositional verb, but it follows the personal pronoun in phrasal verbs, such as
in the following examples:
(1a). She called on them.
Sentence (1a) is example of prepositional verb with particle precedes the personal
pronoun.
(1b). *She called them on.
Sentence (1b) is not prepositional verb because the particle cannot follow the
personal pronoun of prepositional verb.
(2a). She called them up.
Sentence (2a) is example of phrasal verb with particle follows the personal pronoun.
(2b). *She called up them
Sentence (2b) is not phrasal verb because the particle cannot precede the personal
pronoun of phrasal verb.
3. An adverb (functioning adjunct) can often be inserted between verb and particle in
prepositional verbs, but not in phrasal verbs, such as in the following examples:
(1a). She called angrily on her friends.
Sentence (1a) is example of prepositional verb with adverb is inserted between verb
and particle.
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(1b). *She called angrily up her friends.
Sentence (1b) is not phrasal verb because an adverb cannot be inserted between verb
and particle.
4. The particle of a phrasal verb cannot precede a relative pronoun or whinterrogative, such as in the following examples:
(1a). The friends on whom she called.
Sentence (1a) is example of prepositional verb with particle precedes relative
pronoun.
(1b). *The friends up whom she called.
Sentence (1b) is not phrasal verb because particle cannot precede the relative
pronoun.
(2a). On which friends did she call?
Sentence (2a) is example of prepositional verb with particle precedes relative
pronoun in interrogative sentence.
(2b). *Up which friends did she call?
Sentence (2b) is not phrasal verb because particle cannot precede the relative
pronoun.
2.2.3 Types of Phrasal Verbs
According to Greenbaun and Quirk (1973), or Veres (1998) or Vlad (1998),
phrasal verbs are divided into transitive and intransitive phrasal verbs.
1. Intransitive phrasal verb
In traditional grammars, an intransitive verb is an action verb that takes no
object. One common type of multi- word verb is the intransitive phrasal verb
consisting of a verb plus a particle (verb+adverb), for examples:
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a). The children were sitting down.
b). The plane has now taken off.
c). Go off to bed now.
Heaton (1985) claims that normally, the particle cannot be separated from
its verb (Drink quickly up); though particles used as intensifiers or perfectives or
referring to direction can be modified by intensifiers (Go right on).
2. Transitive phrasal verb
Transitive verb is a verb that takes both a subject and an object. Therefore,
phrasal verbs are transitive when they take an object, for examples:
a). We will set up a new unit.
b). Drink up your milk
c). He looked up his former friends.
According to Veres (1998) the pattern of transitive phrasal verbs is: verb +
adverbial particle + object (VAO), for examples
a). Turn down the radio! (reduce the volume)
b). How shall I not back up my best friend? (support).
According to Greenbaun and Quirk (1973:122) and Veres (1998:87) provides
that VAO order is used:
1. When the object is long.
E.g. You have to put off your plan of removing her to another
hospital.
2. When the object is an –ing clause
E.g. He went on speaking.
3. In fixed phrases
E.g. keep up appearances.
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4. When the verb phrase is strongly idiomatic.
E.g. We made out a sturdy man.
But VAO order is also possible:
a. With many phrasal verbs.
E.g. Turn the radio down!
b.When the direct object is a pronoun or a proper name (the pronominal
direct object always precede the adverbial particle.)
E.g. They brought him up with much care and love. (educate).
If the phrasal verb is transitive, the pattern will include N, PRON, or REFL.
There are 4 patterns of transitive phrasal verbs that are possible used:
1. Pattern V+ N+ ADV
In this pattern, the verb has an object (N), and the object comes before
the adverb (ADV).
E.g. They pay half of their income in rent out.
2. Pattern V+ ADV+ N
In this pattern, the verb also has an object (N), and that the object
comes after the adverb (ADV).
E.g. First, add up all your regular payments.
3. Pattern V+ PRON+ ADV
In this pattern, the verb must have an object which can be a personal
pronoun (PRON), and that the object comes before the adverb (ADV).
E.g. They called me in for questioning.
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4. Pattern V+ REFL+ ADV
In this pattern, the verb has an object which must be a reflexive
pronoun (REFL), and that the object must come before the adverb (ADV).
E.g. I shut myself away in a library that night and wrote a letter.
(Collins Dictionary, VI).
In answering the problem about types of phrasal verbs found in this novel.
The writer uses the theories from Greenbaun and Quirk (1973) and also Collins
(1991)
2.3 Particles
Particle is a function word that does not belong to one of the main
classes of words, (such as noun, pronouns, and verbs) but has grammatical
purpose. As a function word, we can see the functions of particle in phrasal
verbs to give more meaning to the verb. Further explanations of particles will
be drawn below:
2.3.1 Word Classes of Particle
Olteanu (2012:33) states that due to the double nature of phrasal verbs, that
is sometimes adverbial and sometimes prepositional, this section proposes an
overview on the matter of word classes of particles.
If the particle is a preposition, a noun group follows it. This noun group is
called a prepositional object.
If the particle is an adverb the pattern will include ADV but if the particle is
a preposition the particle will include PREP, for examples:
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1). move off is labeled V+ ADV: The fleet of cars prepared to move off.
2). rely on is labeled V+ PREP: She is forced to rely on her mother's money.
There are cases in which the particle can be used either as an adverb or as
preposition, for examples:
1a). came in is labeled V+ ADV: Jeremy came in looking worried. (The
particle ‘in’ is used as an adverb).
1b). come in is labeled V+ PREP: Come in the house, she said. (The particle
‘in’ is used as a preposition). (Collins Dictionary, VII).
2.3.2 Positioning of particles
When the phrasal verb is transitive, it is important to know where to put the
particle in relation to the object: does the particle come between the verbs or does it
follow the verb?
The patterns for transitive phrasal verbs indicate the order of elements. For
example, the pattern V+ ADV + N shows that the particle is situated between the
verb and its object: E.g. I was cleaning out my desk at the office.
If the pattern is V+ N+ ADV, the particle is positioned after the object.
E.g.: I spent three days cleaning our flat out. Clean out is a phrasal verb in which a
particle can come in front or after the object, but there are some phrasal verbs that
have only one pattern. For example put up, which is labeled V+ ADV+ N: We had
put up a fierce struggle.
If the object is a pronoun, then the particle is always positioned after the
object. (V+ PRON+ ADV). An example is set down: The colonel lifted his cup,
glared at it, and set it down again. (Collins Dictionary, VII).
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2.3.3 The function of particles
Particles have function as adverbs to modify the verbs with which they are
associated. In accordance with the statement, Heaton (1985:112) notes that although
most adverbial particles have the same form as their corresponding prepositions they
do not denote a relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word,
functioning as adverbs. The following examples illustrate them.
a). In the first of the sentences below, down functions as an adverbial particle, while
in the second sentence down is a preposition.
E.g. Peter ran down as he saw me waiting.
Peter ran down the stairs as soon as he saw me waiting
b). In the next two sentences, off functions first as an adverbial particle and then as a
preposition:
E.g. She took off her coat.
She took her coat off the hook.
In the first sentence, off shows the direction in which she moved the coat, while off
in the second sentence indicates the relationship between coat and hook.
The function of on is also taken into consideration by Heaton:
E.g. Peter turned on the boastful youth and struck him.
In this sentence, on is a preposition and shows the relation between the
boastful youth and the verb turned. The boastful youth is the object of the
preposition on, not of the verb turned.
c). ln spite of its different positions on functions as an adverbial particle in both
sentences below. On modifies the verb turn, tap being the object of the verb turn in
both cases.
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E.g. John turned the tap on.
John turned on the hot- water tap.
d). The following example illustrates how slight the difference frequently is between
prepositions and adverbial particles. In both sentences, through functions as an
adverbial particle modifying the verb read. In the second sentence, however,
through could easily be confused in function with a preposition.
E.g. I have read your essay through and think it is good.
I have read through your essay and think that it is good.
Heaton (1985:114) considers that adverbial particles differ from other
adverbs in certain ways. Most of them are best regarded as helping to form a new
verb, for they change or add to the meaning of the verb, however slightly. Thus, the
particle is really an integral part of the phrasal verb, separable often in word- order
but nevertheless constituting a single unit. Heaton proposes five ways in which most
particles function:
1). Many cause a verb to assume a new or subsidiary meaning, for examples:
a. The widow carried on as if nothing had happened.
b. I'm done for (warned out).
c. Long dresses have gone out these years (ceased to be fashionable).
2). Some particles assume a new or special meaning with a verb but do not change
the normal meaning of that verb, for examples:
a. He talked down to his pupils.
b. Speak out ('loudly')
As the verb retains its usual meaning in such cases it is often possible to deduce the
meaning of the whole collocation. (E.g. look over = 'inspect'; switch = 'connect'.)
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3). Other particles provide stress emphasis or a sense of completion, for examples:
a. Let me finish this off before.
b. Hurry up or we shall be late
4). Other function in a similar way to ordinary adverbs, helping to form a collocation
which maintains a literal meaning, for examples:
a. She got in her car and drove away without speaking.
b. She decided to go out and see her.
c. He jumped up as soon as I entered
5). A number are similar in function to prepositions. Although they are linked to the
verb and conform to the same rules of word order as other adverbial noun, a noun
equivalent following them is often understood, (though not expressed), for examples:
a. Take your hat off. (your head)
b. She came down (the stairs) to greet the guests.
Heaton (1985:116) states that consequently, the phrasal verb must be taken
as a unit because its meaning can rarely be inferred from the knowledge of the verb
and the particle separately.
In answering the problem about function of particle in phrasal constructions,
the writer applies this theory.
2.4 Semantic distinction
According to Palmer (1976:1) states that semantics is the technical term
used to refer to the study of meaning. Unfortunately, ‘meaning’ covers a variety of
aspects of language, and there is no very general agreement either about what
meaning is or about the way in which it should be described. In accordance with
those definitions, Fraser distincts phrasal verbs semantically in three groups.
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Fraser (1976) and others have pointed out that phrasal verbs exhibit
interesting semantic differences. Fraser, for example, divides them into three groups.
1. Literal phrasal verbs
Literal phrasal verbs are those items where the particle retains its literal
adverbial meaning as the up does in the following example:
a). I hung up the pictures on the wall.
b). Mariam had climbed a chair and taken down her mother’s Chinese tea
set.
Some other examples of literal phrasal verbs are: sit down, dish out, hand out, and
take down. These phrasal verbs are among the easiest for nonnative speakers to
understand and acquire.
2. Completive phrasal verbs
Completive phrasal verbs are those the particle indicates completed action.
The particles up, out, off, and down all seem to be used this way; however, up is the
one most frequently used in this function. The adverbial particle is added to
emphasize that the action should start, and continue until the action is completed. For
example:
a). I tore up the piece of paper.
b). The radio turned off.
Some other completive phrasal verbs: mix up, wind up, wear out, fade out, burn
down, run down, cut off, turn off, etc.
3. Figurative phrasal verbs
Phrasal verbs are considered “figurative” when there is no systematic way
of semantically associating the verb and the particle. This is true of the following
example:
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a). She looked up the information.
b). The Lights came on.
Some other figurative phrasal verbs are turn up (arrive, appear), catch on
(understand), give in (surrender); look over (review), etc. Such phrasal verbs are the
most difficult ones for ESL/EFL students to master.
In answering the problem about types of semantic distinctions of phrasal
verbs found in this novel, the writer applies this theory.
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