ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL STUDY ON THE SLIP OF THE TONGUE
ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL STUDY ON THE SLIP OF THE TONGUE AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
Wawan Surajah Student Number: 044214075
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2011
ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL STUDY ON THE SLIP OF THE TONGUE AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
Wawan Surajah Student Number: 044214075
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2011
You are now about to witness the strength of street knowledge. - Dr. Dre, 1988
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMISYang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama : Wawan Surajah Nomor mahasiswa : 044214075
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL STUDY ON THE SLIP OF THE TONGUE
Bersama perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta Pada tanggal: 7 Desember 2011 Yang menyatakan, (Wawan Surajah)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I have been through a long and winding road before I can stand here. I have learned and experienced many things in the past and I believe that I cannot reach my destination without the help of incredible and lovable persons in my life who always support me and catch me whenever I fall. My endless and greatest gratitude goes to my parents, Citro Sutaryo (R.I.P) and Kusmiyati, for whom I dedicate this undergraduate thesis. I owe them my life. I also thank my sisters, Nunuk Sulistyowati and my brother Rahmad Kartika Yunianto who take care of me since Dad had passed away. The rest of Parto Soewiryo’s family.
My sincerest gratitude I address to Dr. Francis Borgias Alip, M.Pd., M.A., my advisor for giving me advice and suggestion so that my undergraduate thesis is more organized. I also thank my co-advisor, Linda Valentina, B., S.S., M. HUM. for the guidance and suggestion so that I can do deeper analysis. Dra. Bernadine Ria Lestari, M.S. for the unforgettable thesis defense.
I address my sincerest gratitude to my partners in life at the Hans Corp., and my lovely partner Andika Fatmawati Putri. All the Slamet Crew, Adit, Galih, Ronny, Yuga, Ferdi, Bayu, Adi, and Slamet for the best jokes ever. The last biggest kisses and thanks for all the Behi Crew for the discussions and supports.
Wawan Surajah
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE .................................................................................................... i
APPROVAL PAGE .......................................................................................... ii
ACCEPTANCE PAGE ..................................................................................... iii
MOTTO PAGE ................................................................................................. iv
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS ................................................................................ vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................. vii
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................... ix
ABSTRAK ......................................................................................................... x
a. Articulatory Phonetics .............................................................. 13 1) Vowels ................................................................................. 13 2) Consonants .......................................................................... 14
e. Segment –deletion and –insertion Rules ........................................ 20
d. Feature Addition Rules .................................................................. 20
c. Dissimilation Rules ........................................................................ 19
b. Feature Changing Rules ................................................................ 19
a. Assimilation ................................................................................... 18
4. Phonological Rules. .......................................................................... 18
b) Manner of Articulation .................................................... 15 3) Diphthongs .......................................................................... 15 4) Syllable ................................................................................ 17
a) Place of Articulation ........................................................ 14
3. Phonological Terms........................... ........................................... 13
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study ........................................................................ 1 B. Problem Limitation ................................................................................. 4 C. Problem Formulation .............................................................................. 5 D. Research Objective ................................................................................. 5 E. Research Benefits .................................................................................... 5 F. Definition of Terms ................................................................................. 6 CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW A. Review of Related Studies ...................................................................... 8 B. Review of Related Theories .................................................................... 8
2. Phonemic and Phonetic Transcription ............................................... 12
f. Errors Involving Haplology ........................................................... 12
e. Substitutions .................................................................................. 11
d. Exchanges ...................................................................................... 11
c. Blends ............................................................................................ 10
b. Perseveration Error ........................................................................ 10
a. Anticipation Errors ........................................................................ 9
1. The Types of Slip of the Tongue .................................................... 9
f. Movement or Metathesis Rules ...................................................... 21
C. Theoretical Framework ........................................................................... 21
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY A. Object of the Study ................................................................................. 23 B. Method of the Study ............................................................................... 24 C. Research Procedures ............................................................................... 25
1. Data Collection ................................................................................... 25
2. Data Analysis ...................................................................................... 27
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS A. Description of the Data ........................................................................... 30 B. Types of Slip of the Tongue ................................................................ 33
1. Anticipation Errors ............................................................................. 34
2. Perseveration Errors ........................................................................... 35
3. Blends ................................................................................................. 36
4. Exchanges ........................................................................................... 37
5. Substitutions ........................................................................................ 38
6. Errors Involving Haplology ................................................................ 39
C. Pattern of Recurrence of Slip of the Tongue ........................................ 40
1. Anticipation Errors ............................................................................. 40
2. Perseveration Errors ........................................................................... 42
3. Blends ................................................................................................. 43
4. Exchanges ........................................................................................... 45
5. Substitutions ....................................................................................... 45
6. Errors Involving Haplology ................................................................ 48
D. Phonological Rules Found on Slip of the Tongue .................................. 49
1. Assimilation ........................................................................................ 49
2. Feature Changing Rules ..................................................................... 51
3. Dissimilation Rules ............................................................................ 52
4. Feature Addition Rules ....................................................................... 53
5. Segment –deletion and –insertion Rules ............................................ 54
6. Movement or Methatesis Rules .......................................................... 54
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ........................................................................ 57 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................. 60 APPENDIX ........................................................................................................ 62
ABSTRACT
Wawan Surajah. English Phonological Study on the Slip of the Tongue Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2011.
Like other languages, English has its own complexity and has phenomena that are caused by its complexity. One of those phenomena is the slip of the tongue, well known as spoonerism. Slip of the tongue itself is an accidental error in speech. Accidental error is not like speech disorder or inadequate command of a language. Slips of the tongue may come in different ways but for sure some slip of the tongue could make its speakers feel embarrass when they do it. In its development slip of the tongue is used in different kind of media in order to create joke or criticism. In another word it changes from unintentional into intentional error.
The discussion of slips of the tongue in this thesis is made based on the objectives of this study which are to find out types of slip of the tongue from video in YouTube, to find out pattern of recurrence of slip of the tongue based on its types, and to find out rules of phonology applied on slip of the tongue.
The three objectives were accomplished by doing data gathering and analysis of the data. The object of the study in this thesis was all taken from video tagged on YouTube site. From the videos the researcher could make transcription about errors that were made by speaker within the videos. Then the researcher classified the data based on its type of slip of the tongue. By doing this classification the researcher was able to track the pattern of recurrence of each type of slip of the tongue. The next step is looking for the detail pattern on each type of slip of the tongue. The last step is making analysis of the rules of phonology that were applied on slip of the tongue.
Based on the analysis in this study, the types of slip of the tongue that are found are anticipation errors, perseveration errors, blends, exchanges, substitutions, and errors involving haplology. Based on this classification the researcher is able to study pattern of each error. In anticipation and perseveration errors the intended utterances are masked by salient segments that occur before or after it. Blends error is made by blending two different words that contain similar sounds. Exchanges involve the swapping of two segments in the same position within different words. Substitutions will always change intended utterance with its minimal pairs or words with similar sounds. Haplology always drops one of two similar successive segments or syllables. Some rules of phonology are found in slip of the tongue. They are assimilation rules like nasalization and devoicing, feature changing rules in assimilation rules, dissimilation rules like haplology and cannibalism, feature addition rules like aspiration, segment –deletion and segment –addition rules, and movement or metathesis rules.
ABSTRAK
Wawan Surajah. English Phonological Study on the Slip of the Tongue Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2011.
Seperti bahasa lainnya di dunia, bahasa Inggris memiliki kerumitan tersendiri dan mempunyai fenomena bahasa yang dikarenakan kerumitan tersebut. Salah satu fenomena yang ada adalah salah ucap. Salah ucap sendiri adalah kesalahan dalam berbicara secara tidak disengaja. Kesalahan ini berbeda dari kelainan dalam berbicara atau kontrol bahasa yang kurang. Salah ucap dapat terjadi dengan banyak cara, satu hal yang jelas tentang salah ucap adalah sang pembicara dapat merasa malu saat mereka melekukan kesalahan tersebut. Dalam perkembangannya salah ucap menjadi kesalahan yang memang disengaja oleh pemakai unutik menciptakan lelucon atau kritikan.
Pembahasan salah ucap dalam tugas akhir ini dibuat berdasarkan atas sasaran dari pembelajaran ini, yaitu untuk menemukan jenis salah ucap dari video di YouTube, untuk menemukan pola dari salah ucap berdasarkan jenisnya, dan untuk menemukan hukum fonologi di dalam salah ucap.
Tiga sasaran tersebut dapat diselesaikan dengan mengumpulkan data dan menganalisanya. Data dalam tugas akhir ini diambil dari video-video yang diunggah di situs YouTube. Dari data tersebut peneliti dapat membuat salinan tentang kesalahan ucap yang dibuat oleh pembicara dalam video. Kemudian peneliti mengklasifikasikan data tersebut berdasarkan jenisnya. Dengan menganalisa jenisnya peneliti dapat melacak pola dari tiap jenis salah ucap. Selanjutnya peneliti mencari detail lengkap dari pola tersebut. Hal terakhir yang dilakukan peneliti di sini adalah menganalisa hukum fonolgi yang diterapkan dalam kesalahan ucap.
Berdasarkan analisa dalam penelititan ini, jenis salah ucap dapat dibedakan atas kesalahan antisipasi, pengulangan yang tak terkontrol, pencampuran, persalinan, penggantian, dan kesalahan yang melibatkan haplologi. Berdasar dari jenis-jenis tersebut peneliti dapat mempelajari pola yang dimiliki. Dalam kesalahan antisipasi dan pengulangan yang tak terkontrol hal yang ingin diucapkan tertutup oleh bagian berpengaruh yang muncul sebelum atau sesudahnya. Dalam pencampuran kesalahan dibuat dengan mencampur dua kata yang memiliki kesamaan bunyi. Persalinan terjadi pada dua bagian yang berdiri pada posisi yang sama dalam kata yang berbeda. Penggantian terjadi dengan mengganti hal yang ingin diucapkan dengan pasangan kata degan perbedaan pada satu bunyi atau kata yang memiliki padanan bunyi. Haplologi akan selalu menghilangan salah satu dari dua bunyi yang muncul berurutan. Beberapa hukum fonologi juga ditemukan dalam salah ucap. Diantaranya asimilasi seperti nasalisasi dan membuat segmen bersuara yang muncul setelah segmen tidak bersuara menjadi tidak bersuara juga, hukum perubahan perangkat seperti dalam asimilasi, disimilasi seperti dalam haplologi dan juga kanibalisme, penambahan perangkat seperti dalam aspirasi, panambahan dan pengurangan segmen, dan juga metatesis.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter deals with the introduction of this thesis. There are five parts
that are going to be discussed, namely background of the study, problem limitation, problem formulation, objective of the study, and definition of terms.
A. Background of the study
Most people use language and most of them know what language is. From ancient time until nowadays people use language to communicate, no matter how and what kind of language they use. As said by Fromkin, Rodmans, and Hyams in
An Introduction to Language , “Where else people do when they come together –
whether they play, make love, or automobiles – they talk. We live in a world of language” (2003: 3). Whatever people do and wherever they are, they use language to communicate to others or to talk to no one, just like when we talk, when we sleep or when we are all alone, but still, we need and use a language.
Talking about the need of language, we will talk about the speech that we use in our conversation. When we talk about conversation or a good conversation in general, naturally, we will not have and no one will have a perfect conversation. As human, we will make mistake, and it will also happen in our conversation. One of the phenomena that occur in speech errors is that slip of the tongue. As said by Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams in their book, “We all make speech errors, and they tell us interesting things about language and it uses” (2003: 316). Therefore, it is true that the phenomenon of slip of the tongue happens in our world of conversation and it is interesting thing since the study of the linguistics is about our mistake. Something that we probably do not count as something predicted but the fact we could do research on this matter. And as stated by Peter Matthews that slip of the tongue describes as any accidental error in speech (1997: 343). He explains that slip of the tongue is different to any speech disorder or inadequate command of a language. By understanding the definition of slip of the tongue it is understandable that slip of the tongue is an unintentionally respond of someone in his or her speech.
Some of these mistakes are used in some media to be printed or written or spoken as a humorous idea. Like in movie or live joke some actresses use slip of the tongue as an entertaining object. In some media people use slip of the tongue to criticize something or someone. While in this thesis the data that is used by the writer are videos that have been up loaded at the Internet. Within these videos the writer could find recorded live TV programs or News that contain the slip of the tongues. Most of them are used in a live public speech as jokes and criticisms. These videos show that in the slip of the tongue development they are used intentionally by the speaker in speech for specific purposes. For more specific information, it was from YouTube where the writer gained all the videos.
YouTube , as it have already mentioned before, provides recorded videos that
contain the slip of the tongue from different TV channels and programs. And most of them were presented in English. The examples of slips of tongue posted on
YouTube section are (* first word in Italic shows the actual utterance while the
next Italic word shows the intended utterance):
1. And I am proud to be his partner and we’ve had trials, we make some mistakes, we have some *sexbat… setbacks….
2. …. after the news we will be talking to Jeremy *Cunt... Hunt the culture….
3. Can you imagine shifting a substantial number to Afghanistan, for the man who’s been giving strength and *Obama… Osama bin Laden….
According to Boomer and Laver a slip of the tongue is an involuntary deviation in performance from the speaker’s current phonological, grammatical or lexical intention (1973: 217). Furthermore they explain that these involuntary or unintentional errors may result in utterances that provoke the hearer to laugh. In some point people intentionally use this for some purposes like jokes or criticism. But here on this paper the writer does not use such conscious creation. As said by Fromkin that intentional errors will not be considered although some find that these intentional errors usually follow the same ‘rules’ and do non-intentional errors (1973: 217).
Slip of the tongue is an interesting object to be discussed because the blunder that people made in speech will be a funny thing for listener, but in some cases, like what the writer found on the data collection, it will make the speaker feel a real embarrassment. Since the blunder can be analyzed using the phonological rules, as stated by Fromkin, “Slip of the tongue, or speech errors, it can be defined as the way in which we deviate in some way from the intended utterance, show phonological rules in action” (2003: 316), the writer will try to find out what aspects of phonology that make people tend to do it. It was also said by Fromkin in his book in phonological rules section that there is tendency when people speak to increase the ease of articulation in order to articulate afficiently (2003: 301). From this statement the writer is interested to study slip of the tongue in order to find out any aspect of phonetics that make people tend to do it.
Through phonology and phonetics the author can find the pattern of recurrence that will describe what kinds of processes actually happen in slips of the tongue.
Considering those idea, the focus of the paper will be about phonological processes in the slip of the tongue.
The researcher decides to present number of samples of slip of the tongue which are taken from YouTube as the sources. The aim of doing this is to find out the phonological processes in the interaction of shaping the mistake in slip of the tongue.
B. Problem Limitation
In doing the research the writer is limited by time, experience, and source of the data. Because of those limitation the problem to be discussed on this research is limited to phonological rules and phonological processes that are found on the slip of the tongue.
C. Problem Formulation
According to the reason of this research above, the researcher formulates three problems as the basic questions for this research. They are:
1. What types of the slip of the tongue are found in YouTube?
2. What patterns of the recurrence are found in slip of the tongue?
3. What phonological rules are found in the slip of the tongue? D.
Research objective
Three objectives of the study become the target for the researcher in this study is:
1. To find the types of the slip of the tongues that found in the YouTube.
2. To find the patterns that are found in slip of the tongue, seen from the change of its phonetics features.
3. To find out and describe the phonological processes found in the slip of the tongue.
E. Research Benefits
This discussion will be beneficial for the following people: First, it is for students who study language as their major. This research results in informational input about knowledge in linguistics, especially in phonological rules and processes. This study will enrich their knowledge of language. Moreover, it will bring enlightment to the application of phonological rules and phonological processes in language. Therefore, they will pay more attention to the rules of language that is applied to the language that they study. Second, this research will be beneficial for language teachers. It will bring into awareness about the importance of the application of such rules in language in their teaching.
Third, it is for the observers who are interested in phonological study. The procedures and result of this analysis will promote them to start other analysis with the same theme. Therefore, more studies, which can include more variables related to the topic can be developed in different setting.
F. Definition of Terms There are two terms that will be presented by the writer on this section.
1. Phonology It is “an aspect of language organization involving the use of sounds and the relationships among them” (Wolfram and Johnson, 1982: 1). It is based on the theory of what every speaker of a language unconsciously knows about the sound patterns of the language.
The goal of phonology is to study the properties of the sound systems, which speaker must learn or internalize in order to use their language for the purpose of communication (Sahutala, 1988: 50).
2. Slip of the Tongue Peter Matthews describes slip of the tongue in his dictionary as any accidental error in speech (1997: 343). This error is distinguished as accidental from errors attributable to a speech disorder or to inadequate command of a language. This way one could differentiate between slip of the tongue, speech disorder, and lack of knowledge.
CHAPTER II TEORETICAL REVIEW This chapter covers three parts: review on related studies, review on
related theories, and theoretical framework. The first part of the discussion is review on related studies that includes other studies that discuss the similar topic as the analysis. The second part contains some theories that will be used to help the writer undergo the analysis. The theories that will be used are theories about application of phonetic and phonemic transcription, articulatory phonetics, and phonological rules.
A. Review on Related Studies
In this part the writer will discuss the review on related studies that analyzes the slip of the tongue and pen or error in written in Chinese. The work itself has several similarity with what the writer will be going to analyze in this thesis. The paper entitled Slips of the Tongue and Pen in Chinese is the work of David Moser from the Department of East Asian Languages and Civilization in 1991.
The study of slip of the tongue that had been done by David is about the classification of slip of the tongue and pen in Chinese that he found in his research for several years. His basic idea of doing the research was that there were only a few linguistic studies that discusses speech and writing errors in the East. Unlike in the West where there are many linguists and psyhcologists like Victoria Fromkin, Anne Cuttler, Donald MacKay, and many others who had discussed errors in speech and writing. It is necesery to discuss slip of the tongue according to David Moser, because some time this phenomenon could provide enlightment into mechanism on language. In his study David classified errors into several classes like blends, word blends, phrase blends, exchanges, substitutions for speech errors and substitution errors, semantic substitutions, homophone substitutions, or capture errors for written error. Moreover, his study shows the benefits of studying speech errors where speech errors could be used to explore the nature of the mental lexicon, useful for constructions of performance models, provide clues in to the mechanism of reading and talking and plan process involved in reading, and reveal much about how people form concepts and categories, how people make analogies and judgments, and how the mind interprets and makes sense of the world.
The difference of the analysis from the writer lies on the object of the study. David’s paper tries to examine the slip of the tongue and pen that appears in both English and Chinese to be contrasted and grouped it into several classes of types. In different way, here on this research, the writer tries to find out the pattern of recurrences and phonological processes of the slip of the tongue.
B. Review on Related Theories 1. The Types of Slips of the Tongue
a. Anticipation errors
According to Moser, an anticipation error happens when a particular salient segment about to be uttered masks (interferes with or replaces) the segment in the process of being uttered (1991: 4). For example: (1) Tomorrow we can expect partly *skoudy skies… cloudy skies….
(2) The *concleesions… conclusions reached by the committee…. Intended utterances cloudy and conclusions are masked by the following words, skies and committee. These masking segments mask intended utterances to actual utterances skoudy and concleesions.
b. Perseveration errors This kind of error is the opposite of an anticipation error where salient segment or syllable just uttered influences or replaces the sound in the process of being uttered (1991: 9). For example: (3) That was our English *leshon… lesson for today.
(4) I had to leave my car at the Detroit Metro *airpoit… airport. The intended utterances, lesson and airport, on above sentences are masked by preceding segments on words English and Detroit. These masking processes change the intended utterances lesson and airport into actual utterances of leshon and airpoit.
c. Blends A speaker has lots of phrases stocks, linguistic chunks, metaphors, idioms, clichés, proverbs, and colorful images from which to draw. Some of those share similar syntactic structure; others exploit a common pool of cultural myths and archetypes. Some have as key components words that, via homonymy, synonymy, antonymy, or any number of other types of associations, can link them to a host of other such phrases (Moser, 1991: 12). All of those things create a complexity in human experience of speech. Where two phrases or words can bubble up in mind and connected to others in many ways, as in the following example:
(5) This computer is completely *kapunct. (6) That was pretty *upsettling. Both examples in above sentences are gained as the result of words blending. The first kapunct derives from the words kaput and defunct. In second upsettling, the words that were blended are upsetting and unsettling.
d. Exchanges This type of slip of the tongue involves the swapping of two phonemes or words, usually but not always within the same phonemic clause (Moser, 1991:
18). For example: (7) Imagine owning a *bet pat. (pet bat) (8) Did you remember to *bike your lock? (lock your bike)
e. Substitutions Substitution is a type of slip of the tongue that appears when the intruding segment or words does not come from the sentence itself (Moser, 1991: 19-20).
For example: (9) Cutting beards requires special *pliers. (meaning “special scissors”) (10) You’ll have to talk to the guy who waters the gardener. (The intended utterances could be “guy who waters the flowers” or “guy
who waters the garden .”) f. Errors involving haplology This kind of phenomenon of haplology involves the collapsing of two words or phrases into one (Moser, 1991: 20-21). For example:
(11) Here’s Mozart symphony number *twine… twenty nine. (12) Look! An *MIT-shirt!... MIT T-shirt!
Both actual utterances in above sentences are result of error involving haplology. In the first example it is found that there is collapsing of two successive syllables both in twenty and nine that results in twine. In the second example the successive segments appears successively in two different words and then one of them is “eaten” by the other one. According to Hofstadter and Moser in his paper this kind of phenomenon is a special case of haplology that is called “cannibalism” (1991: 21).
2. Phonemic and Phonetic Transcription
One of the most useful application of phonetics is to provide transcription to indicate pronunciation, because pronunciation is part of phonetics. At first sight phonemic transcription may look less complex than phonetic transcription, where it works to show the phoneme contrast only. For example it describes ‘t’ as /t/.
While phonetic transcription will provide writer with details of the articulation of any particular sound with different symbols, models the pronunciation of word into a string of symbols that represent phones and segments (Jurafsky and Martin, 2009: 216), which become an important thing for the writer to do analysis. This transcription offers visual information of significant phonetic features of a particular context (Collins, 2003: 14). Moreover, phonetic transcription also gives refine or precise transcript of sound in human language. However both phonemic and phonetic transcription are needed in order to provide complete transcription of the data. IPA or International Phonetic Alphabet is not only a set of alphabet but also a set of transcription principles. English consonant symbols in IPA are [p], [t], [k], [b], [d], [g], [m], [n], [
ŋ], [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [∫], [З], [t∫], [dЗ], [l], [w], [r], [j], and [h] and English vowel sysmbols are [i], [
І], [e І], [ε], [æ], [đ], [с], [ Ų], [oŲ], [u], [Λ], [З], [aІ], [aŲ], and [oІ] (Jurafsky and Martin, 2009: 216-218). There are also less commonly used phones and allophones like [
ζ], [ſ], [ſ], and [ļ] and reduced and uncommon phones like [ ə], [ę], [ł], and [Ū]. The phonetic transcription is significant in this research in order to provide the writer of accurate interpreted written text and spoken language of slip of the tongue into visual phonetic data. For example:
(13) ….after the news we will be talking to Jeremy *Cunt... Hunt the culture….
/k /h Λnt/ Λnt/
[kh [h Λ̃nt] Λ̃nt] 3.
Phonological Terms
a. Articulatory phonetics Every speech sound belongs to one or other of the two main classes known as Vowels and Consonants as stated by Jones (1978: 23).
1) Vowels
A vowel (in normal speech) is defined as a voiced sound in forming which the air issues in a continuous stream through the pharynx and mouth, there being no obstruction and no narrowing such as would cause audible friction (Jones, 1978: 23). For the examples of the vowels could be seen in the table number.
2) Consonants All other sounds beside vowels (in normal speech) are called consonants.
Consonants therefore include all sounds which are not voiced (p, s, f), all sounds production in which the air has an impeded passage through the mouth (b, l, rolled r), and all sounds in which the productions of which the air does not pass through mouth (m), all sounds in which there is audible friction (f,v,s,z,h). Basically consonants are classed into such different places of articulation and manners of articulation. Different consonantal sounds result according to the place of articulation, which is where in the vocal tract the airflow restriction occurs. Movement of the tongue and the lips, called the articulators, causes the restriction reshaping the oral cavity in various ways to produce the various consonants (Fromkin, 2003: 242).
In this section the writer will discuss the major consonantal place and manner features. As people pronounce consonant those people may know which articulators are moving, to where and how.
a) Place of Articulation According to Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams (2003: 242-243), generally there are eight features in place of articulation which are: bilabials: [p], [b], and
[m], labiodentals: [f] and [v], interdentals: [ θ] and [ð], alveolars: [t], [d], [n],
[s], [z], [l], and [r], palatals: [[ ∫], [З], [t∫], and [dЗ], velars: [k], [g], and [ŋ], uvulars: [R], [q], and [G], and glottal: [
ζ] and [h].
b) Manners of articulation Speech sounds are classified in the way the air stream is affected as it flows from the lungs up and out of the mouth and nose. It may be blocked; the vocal cord may vibrate or not vibrate (2003: 244-248). The table 1.0 will show the classes of consonants in a matter of manners of articulation.
3) Diphthongs Diphthongs are [ei], [ai], [oi], [ou], [au], [i
ə], and [u] (Sahutala, 1988: 47). The illustration could be seen in ape [eip] for [ei], time [taim] for [ai], oil [oil] for [oi], oak [ouk]for [ou], or house [haus] for [au].
Slip of the tongue may occur in different kind of ways. It could be consonants, vowels, or diphthongs that changing, phonemes or syllables that switching, segments that were inserted or deleted, phonemes that have been nasalized, phonemes that been aspirated, and soon. But for sure, all of those patterns of recurrence could be seen and chategorized in a way phonetic and phonemic features are used. Patterns of slip of the tongue could be seen when the sound producing processes are described. For example:
16 Table 1.0 Consonants and vowels in English C O N S O N A N T S
Glide Voiceless Voiced w w h
Λ æ
Mid Low
ε е u υ o с a
High i І e
V O W E L S Front Central Back
Liquid lr
∫ d З
Bilabial Labiodental Interdental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glotal Stop (Oral) Voiceless Voiced
Affricate Voiceless Voiced t
∫ З h
θ ð s z
Fricative Voiceless Voiced f v
Nasal (Stop) m n ŋ
P b t d k g
(Fromkin, 2003: 251-254)
(14) The Deputy Police Chief said, “Six officers were killed, including the District’s top *cock… cop after the vehicle they were riding in….
/t /t с:p kс:k/ с:p kс:p/
[t [t с:p kс:k] с:p kс:p] The uttered k of final District’s influences the final p of top.
4) Syllable Definition of syllable is “a unit intermediate between the segment and word”
(Richard, 1985: 282). Syllable can be implemented into two ways which are as phonetic unit and phonological unit. If it is implemented as phonological unit syllable refers to:
“A number of different sequences of consonants and vowels, together with other features such as length and stress, or to single consonant or vowel, which in the language concerned are as a unitary group of further analysis (Robins, 1989: 129).”
With the phonological way of implementing syllable, it can be said that making-up syllables is quite complex. Word like cap /kæp/ is made of a vowel between consonants. Single vowel like a / ə/ can also make up syllable. A single consonant can also make up a syllable, called syllabic, like in the word little /litl/ where the /l/ called to be syllabic.
Connected to the larger unit syllable is linked with word. Robins in his book said that syllables can be used to classify words (1989: 130). Syllables can be classified into monosyllabic, disyllabic, trisyllabic, and polysyllabic. This classification is based on the number of syllables in each word. For example the word cap /kæp/ is a monosyllabic word, little /litl/ is a disyllabic word, policeman /p əlismən/ is a trisyllabic word, and activation /æktəvei ən/ is a polysyllabic.
4. Phonological Rules
There are five rules that are used to analyze the object and see the phonological processes; they are assimilation, feature addition, dissimilation, and segment deletion and insertion, and movement or metathesis rules.
a. Assimilation It is process that result the changing of features due to influence of nearby segments (O’Grady, 1989: 77). According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams
(2003: 301), assimilation rule is a rule that makes neighboring segments more similar by copying or spreading a phonetic property from on segment to the other.
For the most part, assimilation rules stem from articulatory or physiological processes. There is a tendency when we speak to increase the ease of articulation, that is, to articulate efficiently (Fromkin, 2003: 301-303). For example, we have note that it is easier to lower the velum while a vowel is being pronounced before the nasal stop closure than to wait for the actual moment of closure and force the velum to move suddenly. Assimilation rules in all languages reflect coarticulation
- – the spreading of phonetic features either in the anticipation of the preservation of articulatory processes. For example is the nasalization of the vowel stands before nasal consonant. This kind of rule could be seen in the Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams’ example of (2003: 316):
Intended utterance Actual utterance
(15) gone to seed god to seen [gãn t [gad t
ə sid] ə sĩn] In above example it is found that the nasal vowel sound change from the last word to the first word after on the actual utterance.
b. Feature changing rules Feature changing rules involved the English vowel nasalization and devoicing rules. According to Fromkin all of those rules change feature specifications (2003: 305). Assimilation rules change the value of phonemic features this rule included as feature-changing or feature-spreading rules. Here is an example of feature changing rule (2003: 316):
Intended utterance Actual utterance
(16) gone to seed god to seen [gãn t ə sid] [gad t ə sĩn]
On this example the nasalization changes the feature of non-nasal vowel after it appears before nasal consonant.
c. Dissimilation rules Almost in all languages in the world we will find assimilation. It is because it permits greater ease of articulation. But we also find dissimilation rules in languages, rules in which segment becomes less similar to another segment rather than more similar. The natural explanation is that in the point of view of the hearer, in listening to speech, if sounds are too similar, we may miss the contras (Fromkin, 2003: 302). Dissimilation rules are quite rare, but they do occur in languages. Like the example from Moser bellow (1991: 20):
(17) If you’re willing to go through some *momenterror… momentary terror ….
This kind of phenomenon called to be a special case of haplology (1991: 20-21). And haplology is a special case for dissimilation rules. On the above example the haplology rule eliminates similar sounds that appear successively. In this case the similar environment is dissimilated by the collapsing of segments.
d. Feature addition rules It is a process in which a phonological rule can add a new feature that is not present in the phonemic matrices rules (Fromkin and Rodman, 1975: 41-42), for example of this rules is on the application of the rule adds the [-voiced] feature value on the example bellow (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, : 2003: 317).
Intended utterance Actual utterance
(18) stick in the mud smuck in the tid [stik ĩn ðə mΛd] [smΛk ĩn ðə thid] The example of aspiration rule provides the feature addition rule in action.
On this example, the aspirated feature of [th] is added to the actual utterance words.
e. Segment –deletion and –insertion rules It is a process in which phonological rules can delete entire phonemic segment (Fromkin and Rodman, 1975: 103). The illustration of this rule can be seen in the deletion of the unstressed vowels, such as mystry instead of mystery, genral instead of general and so on.
For the segment addition, phonological rules may also insert consonants or vowels, which are called epenthesis (Fromkin and Rodman, 2003: 311). In an epenthesis case non-permitted sequences usually fixed up. f. Movement or metathesis rules In phonology we may also moves phonemes from one place in the string to another. Such rules are called metathesis rules (Fromkin and Rodman, 1975:
105). We can see in the word ask /sk/ is pronounced [ks], but the word asking is pronounced [ski ŋ]. In the case, in a certain context metathesis change the /s/ and
/k/. While another example of this rule application could be seen from the example from Fromkin bellow (2003: 311):
Intended utterance Actual utterance
(19) spaghetti pusketti [sp əgεti] [phəskεti]
C. Theoretical Framework Slip of the tongue is a phenomenon that occurs spontaneously in spoken language. But it is an interesting fact that the phenomenon could be analyzed using phonologycal rules. Even Fromkin said that slip of the tongue is where phonological processes take action (2003: 316). It is getting more interesting when Moser in his paper said that reveal slip of the tongue is like reveal magic trick where the secret trick is hidden and it will be revealed when the magic tric goes wrong (1991: 3). Slip of the tongue is linked to the speech production that relates to spoken language and closely related to pronunciation. Dealing with pronunciation means dealing with phonology.