MULTIMODAL RESOURCES IN FILM TRAILERS.

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MULTIMODAL RESOURCES IN FILM TRAILERS

A Thesis

Submitted to the English Applied Linguistics Study Program in

Partial Fulfillment at the Requirements for the Degrees of

Magister Humaniora

By:

Rosna Kuara

Registration Number : 8126112029

ENGLISH APPLIED LINGUISTICS STUDY PROGRAM

POST GRADUATE SCHOOL

STATE UNIVERSITY OF MEDAN

MEDAN

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ABSTRACT

Kuara, Rosna. Multimodal Resources in Film Trailers. Thesis. English Applied Linguistics Study Program. Post Graduate School. State University of Medan 2014.

The aims of this study are to find out what type of multimodal resources are employed in the action film trailers and how they communicate the promotional purpose. Besides, it also describes why the resources are not employed similarly in all action film trailers. The subjects of this study are taken from three action film trailers, two from action thriller trailers, and one taken from action war trailer. Descriptive qualitative research and the integrative approach are used, and the research instrument in this analysis is observation. The data are gathered by downloading from YouTube. Then they are analyzed based on the structure of meaning-making resources and the three metafunctions, namely representation, orientation, and organization. In the data analysis, it is found that 1) there are three resources that are involved in making meaning in action film trailers, namely the verbal, visual, and oral mode. 2) by combining the verbal, visual, and aural aspects in action film trailers, the promotional purpose is achieved. 3) multimodal resources are employed differently in all action film trailers. Some trailers use more captions in telling the plot of the story while some focus on utilizing the voiceover narrator. From these findings, it can be concluded that the multimodal resources that constitute the action film trailers are used to enhance the promotional purpose, and they are made by combining the verbal, visual, and aural aspect. Multimodal resources are not used chronologically or systematically in all trailers, and they employed differently in all action film trailers because different producers will have different ways and purposes in promoting their film.

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ABSTRAK

Kuara, Rosna. Multimodal Resources in Film Trailers (Unsur-unsur multimodal yang terdapat dalam film trailer). Thesis. Program Studi Linguistik Terapan Bahasa Inggris. Sekolah Pasca Sarjana Universitas Negeri Medan 2014.

Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk menemukan tipe multimodal apa yang terkandung dalam film trailer yang bergenre aksi, dan bagaimana mereka menyampaikan tujuan promosi. Di samping itu, penelitian ini juga bertujuan untuk menjelaskan mengapa film trailer tersebut mengandung unsur-unsur multimodal yang berbeda antara satu dengan yang lainnya. Adapun subjek yang diteliti dalam penelitian ini diambil dari tiga film trailer bergenre aksi, dua di antaranya adalah genre aksi laga yang menegangkan, dan satunya lagi dari genre aksi perang. Penelitian deskriptif kualitatif dan pendekatan secara integratif dilakukan. Instrument penelitian yang dilalukan adalah pengamatan. Semua data tersebut diambil dengan mendownload dari YouTube, dengan judul yang dipilih secara abstrak. Kemudian data tersebut dianalisa berdasarkan pendekatan semiotic sosial terhadap teks perfilman yang diajukan oleh Iedema dengan ketiga metafungsi yaitu metafungsi representasi, orientasi, dan organisasi. Pada data analisa, ditemukan bahwa 1) ada tiga unsur multimodal yang terlibat dalam pemberian arti dalam film trailer yang bergenre aksi, yaitu verbal, visual, dan aural, 2) dengan menggabungkan ketiga aspek tersebut, maka tujuan promosi dapat dicapai, 3) unsur-unsur multimodal tersebut tidak persis dimiliki oleh semua film trailer bergenre aksi. Sebagian trailer menggunakan caption untuk menceritakan jalan cerita sedangkan sebagian lagi menekankan pada penggunaan narrator. Dari penemuan tersebut dapat disimpulkan bahwa unsur-unsur multimodal yang terkandung dalam trailer .bertujuan untuk meningkatkan tujuan promosi, dan merekan terbentuk dengan menggabungkan elemen verbal, visual, dan aural yang terkandung dalam film trailer itu sendiri, unsur-unsur multimodal tersebut tidak digunakan secara kronologis atau sistematis di dalam semua film trailer karena produser film trailer yang berbeda, biasanya memiliki tujuan dan cara yang berbeda di dalam menyampaikan tujuan promosinya.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

With the blessing and the grace of the Almighty God upon the writer’s study, she

has been able to complete her thesis as a partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Magister Humaniora in the English Applied Linguistic Study Program Postgraduate School in the State University of Medan.

At this time opportunity, the writer would like to thank those who have helped make this work possible for her to complete. Her deepest gratitude would have to go to her first and second advisers, Prof. Amrin Saragih, M.A., Ph.D., and Prof. Dr. T. Silvana Sinar, M.A., Ph.D., respectively, for their valuable time in giving suggestions, comments, and criticisms on this thesis.

Her sincerest gratitude is also expressed to Prof. Dr. Busmin Gurning, M.Pd., Dr. Sri Minda Murni, M.S., and Prof. Dr. Berlin Sibarani, M.Pd., for their constructive comments and suggestions for the improvement of this study. Her best regards also go to all the dearest lecturers who have shared their knowledge and skill with her during her academic years in the State University of Medan.

Last but not least, she would also like to extend her heartiest gratitude to her beloved family, her parents, husband, and her two children for having given endless support, care, and pray during the writing of this thesis. Her appreciation also goes to the principals and teachers in W.R. Supratman 1 and Methodist 2 who have been encouraging enough in many different ways to make all this complete.

Though the writer has tried her very best effort in writing this thesis, she realizes that it is still far from being perfect. In this frame of thought, any suggestions or

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constructive comments from the readers intended to improve the work will be warmly welcomed and highly appreciated.

Medan, 28 Maret 2014

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ... i

ABSTRAK ... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... ii

LIST OF APPENDICES ... iv

LIST OF TABLES ... v

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION 1.1The Background of the Study……… ... 1

1.2The Problems of the Study ... 6

1.3The Objectives of the Study ... 6

1.4The Scopes of the Study … ... 6

1.5The Significance of the Study ... .7

CHAPTER II : REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Social semiotics ... 9

2.1.1 Multimodality ... 11

2.1.2 Multimodal Resources……… ... 12

2.1.3 Metafunctions in Still Images ... 14

2.1.4 Metafunctions in Moving Images ... 15

2.2 Film Theory……… ... 17

2.2.1 Editing……… ... 17

2.2.2 Sound ... 18

2.2.3 Voice-over ... 19

2.3 Film Promotion. ... 20

2.3.1 Film promotion Strategy ... 20

2.3.2 Persuasion………… ... 23

2.4 Conceptual Framework ... 24

CHAPTER III : RESEARCH METHOD 3.1 Research Design ... 24

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3.2 Data Sources and the Data ... 24

3.3 Techniques of data collection... 25

3.4 Techniques of data analysis ... 26

3.5 Trustworthiness ... 27

CHAPTER IV : DATA ANALYSIS 4.1 The Multimodal Resources Employed in Action Film Trailers… .... 30

4.1.1 Visual Resources ... 30

4.1.2 Verbal Resources. ... 33

4.1.3 Aural Resources.... ... 37

4.2 Ways in which Multimodal Resources Communicating Promotional Purposes ... 38

4.3 Reasons for Action Film Trailers to Apply the Multimodal Resources Differently..…….. ... 40

4.4 Findings ... ... 41

4.5 Discussions ... 43

CHAPTER V : CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 5.1 Conclusions ... 45

5.2 Suggestions ... 46

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LIST OF TABLES

Pages

Table 1 ………..13

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Pages

Appendix 1 ………. 49

Appendix 2 ………. 51

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C H A P T E R 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 The Background of the Study

Language has commonly been conceived as the central building block to meaning making and to communication. Today, whichever way we turn, our senses are assailed by an array of signs and visual modes of communication, from mobile phone to the internet, advertising, graphic novels and cinema. Technological advances force language to take a back seat in favor of images and sounds, and results the division between form and expression of meaning.

The emergence of digital technologies has changed the design of texts and our literate practices so that we now interpret and construct texts which have verbal, visual, audio and spatial dimensions for making meaning, that is, multimodal texts. Multimodal texts are defined as texts which communicate their message using more than one semiotic resource, or channel of communication. Examples are magazine articles, which use words and pictures, websites which contain audio clips alongside the words, or films (included the film trailers) which uses words, music, sound effects and moving images.Newspapers and magazines, computers, and mass media in general have articulated multimodal texts (combinations of video, audio, written text, etc.) that aim to reinforce, render more complex, or produce different meanings.

Anstey & Bull (2010) define multimodal text as a text which combines two or more semiotic systems. According to them, there are five semiotic systems in total: 1. Linguistic: comprising aspects such as vocabulary, generic structure and the grammar of

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oral and written language, 2. Visual: comprising aspects such as color, vectors and viewpoint in still and moving images, 3. Audio: comprising aspects such as volume, pitch and rhythm of music and sound effects, 4. Gestural: comprising aspects such as movement, speed and stillness in facial expression and body language, 5. Spatial: comprising aspects such as proximity, direction, position of layout and organization of objects in space.

In analyzing a text which has verbal and visual dimensions in making meaning, a multimodal analysis should be conducted. Jones (2012) states that multimodal analysis is an approach which focuses on how meaning is made through the use of multiple modes of communication as opposed to just language._{According to Halloran and Smith (2010),} multimodal analysis includes the analysis of communication in all its forms, but is particularly concerned with texts which contain the interaction and integration of two or more semiotic resources – or ‘modes’ of communication – in order to achieve the communicative functions of the text.

By extending Halliday’s theory of language as social semiotic in order to include other semiotic modes besides language (Halliday : 1978), Kress and Van Leeuwen (1996, 2001) have been influential in showing how meanings are produced not only through different modes, but also through their interaction and intersection with each other. They clarify that the ways in which the different semiotic resources integrate and combine, make meaning; that is the experiential meaning, the interpersonal, and the logical meaning, which belong to Halliday’s concept. In the analysis of moving images, Iedema’s (2001) three metafunctions, namely representational, orientational, and organizational metafunctions, correspond to those in Halliday’s.

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Multimodal text analysis has become a crucial part of research, teaching and practice for a wide of academic and practical disciplines. A variety of techniques, theoretical frameworks and methodologies have therefore evolved for such analysis. The complex ways in which meaning-making resources are orchestrated have been explored in various multimodal texts by numerous researchers such as Van Leeuwen (1998), Lemke (1998), Baldry (2005), Kress (2000), Thibault (2000), and Kress and Jewitt (2003). Besides these, in its use in various disciplines and professions, a variety of disciplines and theoretical approaches can be used to explore different aspects of the multimodal landscape – in anthropology (Goodwin, 2006), in psychology (Ainsworth. 2008); theories from those disciplines are brought to multimodal issues in the respective field of work. Anthropological theories and interests could be applied to examine how communities use multimodal conventions to mark and maintain identities. Psychological theories can be applied to look at how people perceive different modes or to understand the impact of one mode over another on memory, for example. As a consequence, multimodality is embedded in distinct approaches and shaped by them. Much of this has emphasized the ways that specific modes realize meaning.

There are several principle communicative components of multimodal texts, namely: written or spoken language, intonation, images (photographs, diagrams, drawings), and aspects of images such as color, sharpness of focus, spatial composition, etc, also other visuals such as logos, shop or road signs, gestures, facial movements, action (movement in film, for example). The study of multimodality involves looking at these components and the ways they communicate meaning, both separately and in

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combination. Components of multimodal texts often take on new meanings, or connotations, when they interact in a complete text.

Multimodal texts make meanings by integrating resources from multiple modes of an organized set of resources for meaning-making. In line with the characteristics of multimodal texts, this study takes the data research from film trailer. There are several reasons that support film trailers to be chosen as the data. The first reason is due to the fact that multimodal refers to texts which use a range of language modes; and film trailer itself, is the combination of the visual, verbal, and other modes of communication. Maiers (2009) agrees to that and gives opinion that film trailers are multimodal texts in what several semiotic modes are combined and parts of texts created for other purposes are transferred, rearranged, and supplemented in order to attain a promotional purpose (Maier 2009 : 159).

Second reason, film trailers, which mostly last 2-3 minutes, are excellent examples of multimodal texts because of the involvement and interaction of various semiotic resources and they make meaning through a powerful combination of written text on screen, moving images, spoken language, sound effects, music, etc. Next, the writer also noticed that multimodal analysis on moving-image texts are not commonly carried out; then Maier has ever stated that film trailers have rarely been the object of academic research. Last but not least, film trailer is the product of modern technology in information and communication, besides, the analysis on multimodal has become worldwide trend nowadays in analysing text. All these reasons strengthened and made up the writer’s mind to focus on the research.

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In her study on the visual evaluation in film trailers, Maier (2009:163) states that in the last decade, multimodality has proven to be extremely influential in demonstrating how each semiotic mode is dynamically organized and transformed to make meaning in complex texts. Most linguistic analysts nowadays have developed new trends in analyzing a text; they tend to use integrative approach, which means they do not only analyze the text verbally, but also visually. The lattest is commonly known as visual representation aspect in text. But the reality is, there has been little work that specifically targets the nature of the intersemiotic semantic relationships between the visual and verbal modes, to explain just what features make multimodal text visually–verbally coherent.

Originally, trailers were very slowly edited and simple, with hardly any narration and just words all over the screen whereas nowadays film trailers are bursting with sounds, images and footage from the film that they are advertising. This is caused by heavy competition that film producers face, as new, more challenging films constantly seek to gain audience’s attention. Over the last decade, film trailers have become one of the most important advertisements to promote a coming film, thus, larger amounts of money assigned to the making of film trailers. Film producers in this case are compelled to search for the best way to achieve their goals, so there is an increasing complexity of editing strategies and special effects that characterize the structure of film trailers.

In film trailers, film producers promote their coming film by employing a different and complex interplay of multimodal resources in order to build up the audience’s curiosity to watch the film. Among the different film trailers, some of them only make use of the captions to display information to the audience, some adopt the

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voice-over narration as a fundamental source of information, and some others use the combination of the shots from the film and the voice-over narration to expand the promotional purpose of a film trailer as a whole.

From the background above, the writer tries to study what type of multimodal resources are employed in the action film trailers, how these resources communicate the promotional purpose, and why the multimodal resources are not employed similarly in all trailers.

1.2 The Problems of the Study

Based on the background, the problems are formulated as follows:

1. What type of multimodal resources are employed in the action film trailers? 2. How do these resources communicate the promotional purpose?

3. Why are the resources employed differently in all the action film trailers?

1.3 The Objectives of the Study

Based on the background of the study, the objectives of the research are:

1. To find out the type of multimodal resources employed in action film trailers. 2. To find out how the multimodal resources communicate the promotional purpose. 3. To describe why the resources are employed differently in the action film trailers.

1.4 The Scope of the Study

In this study, the writer will choose to analyze Hollywood action film trailers in order to answer the research problems. Since the action film genre itself still has the

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sub-genres, namely action horror, superhero action, action thriller, action war, etc, thus the writer will just pick up two from action thriller trailers and one from action war trailers. The trailers are from the official film trailers released from the year 1990 up to around 2010. The different structure of context in trailers and the general structure of meaning-making resources will become the data of the analysis. The writer will not go into detail with every aspect of the trailers. For instance, she will not analyze every single utterance that was produced from the conversation among the characters in the trailers, but instead she will analyze how the verbal mode interacts with the visual mode. Neither will she employ reception analysis, because she will not discuss audience perception towards the coming film.

1.5

The Significance of the Study

Findings of this study are expected to be useful for theoretically, practically, and academically in some respects:

1. Theoretically, findings of this study will be expected to enrich the theories of multimodal analysis which has become a crucial part of research, teaching and practice for a wide range of academic and practical disciplines. Besides, findings are expected to be useful for other researchers who are interested in this multimodal analysis.

2. Practically, findings are expected to give contribution to the trailer producers as specialists and the common audiences as consumers. To the producers, it will provide an insight that the multimodal resources and the interaction among them can produce

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certain meaning in the trailers. To the audience, it will give enough information to arouse their curiosity to watch the film.

3. Academically, it is expected to deepen the understanding of film trailers as a typical multimodal discourse which deserves much more academic attention. The findings are hoped to be helpful for developing and increasing the world science especially in the education about multimodal in English Applied Linguistic Program.

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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

5.1 Conclusions

on Rick Iedema’s representation, orientation, and organization metafunctions. The

findings of the analysis reveal that the multimodal resources in the film trailers are the verbal, visual, and aural elements that exist in the trailer itself. These elements are known as the conventions of film trailers and they are used to communicate key messages to the audience. Moreover, these three elements are regarded as multimodal resources because they make meaning through a powerful combination of different modes of communication, such as the written text o n screen, spoken language, moving images, voiceover, music, and sound effects.

Visually, the promotional purpose is achieved through the combination of communicative means specific to film texts, such as close-up shots, camera movement, captions, transitions, and special effects. This promotional purpose is also achieved through the intersection of all three semiotic modes namely the visual, verbal, and aural modes. Music and sound effects can also strengthen the promotional purpose of a trailer.

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The multimodal resources are used differently in all action film trailers because different film producers will have different ways in promoting their coming film.

5.2 Suggestions

Firstly, it is suggested that the three multimodal resources can be further explored in other genre besides action genre. Secondly, it is suggested that ways in which multimodal resource communicating promotional purpose can be explored in addition to using the combination of the three multimodal resources. Thirdly, the reasons why different trailers use different multimodal resources in action film trailers, can be further investigated in other genre of film.

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REFERENCES

Anderson, Daniel, Atkins, et.al (2006). Integrating Multimodality into composition curricula. Survey methodology and results from a CCCC research grant. Composition studies, 34(2), 59-84

Anstey, M and Geoff Bull (2010). Helping Teachers to Explore Multimodal Texts : An electronic journal for leaders in Education

Baldry, A. & Thibault, P. (2006). Multimodal Transcription and Text Analysis. London: Equinox.

Bordwell, D., & Thompson, K. (1993). Film Art: an introduction (4th ed.): McGraw- Hill Inc.

Halmari, Helena and Virtanen, Tuija. (2004). Towards understanding modern persuasion: Persuasion Across Genres. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Iedema, Rick. (2001). “Analysing Film and Television: a Social Semiotic Account of

Hospital: an Unhealthy Business”. In Theo van Leeuwen and Carey Jewitt (Eds.)

Handbook of VisualAnalysis (pp. 183-204). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Iedema, Rick. (2003). Visual Communication: Multimodality, resemiotization: extending the analysis of discourse as multi-semiotic practice. London: Sage.

Jones, R. (2005). You show me yours, I'll show you mine. The negotiation of shifts from textual to visual interaction in computer mediated interaction among gay

men. Visual Communication, (1), 6 9-92.

Jewitt, C. (2009). An introduction to Multimodality. In C. Jewitt (Ed), The Routledge handbook of multimodal analysis (pp. 14-27). Abingdon: Routledge.

Kau, Edvin. (Dec. 1998). Separation or combination of fragments? Reflections of editing: P.o.v.filmtidsskrift 6. Cited from (12.05.2009)

Kernan, Lisa. (2004) Coming Attractions: Reading American Trailers. Austin, Texas. University of Texas.

Kress, G. & van Leeuwen, T. (2006). Reading images: the grammar of visual design. London: Routledge.

Kress, G. & van Leeuwen, T. (2001). Multimodal discourse. London: Arnold.

Lemke, J. L. (1998). Multiplying meaning: visual and verbal semiotics in scientific text. In J. R. Martin & R. Veel (Eds.), Reading science (pp. 87–113). London: Routledge.

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Maier, C. Daniela (2009). Visual Communication.8 (2), 159

Metz, Christiana and Michael Taylor 1974. Film Language. Oxford University Press_.

Miles and Huberman (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis. Sage Publications Ltd. London

O’Halloran, K., Tan, S., Smith, B. & Podlasov, A. (2010). Challenges in designing digital

interfaces for the study of multimodal phenomena. Information Design Journal 18(1), 2–21.

Royce,T. & Bowcher, W. eds.( 2007) New Directions in the Analysis o f Multimodal Discourse. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Sharff, Stefan. (1982). The Elements of Cinema. Toward a Theory of Cinesthetic Impact. NewYork: Columbia University Press

Stigel, Jørgen. (2001). “TV Advertising Virtually Speaking : The Invisible Voice Elaborating on the Space between Screen and Viewer”. In Gunhild Agger and Jens F. Jensen (Eds.), The Aesthetics of Television (pp. 321-348). Aalborg: Aalborg University Press.

Van Leeuwen, T. (2001). Semiotics and iconography. In T. van Leeuwen & C. Jewitt (Eds.), Handbook of visual analysis (pp. 92-118). London: Sage.

Van Leeuwen, T. (2004). Ten reasons why linguists should pay attention to visual

communication. . In P. Levine & R. Scollon (Eds.), Discourse & technology. Multimodal discourse analysis (pp.10-19). Georgetown, Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.

Van Leeuwen, Theo. (2006).“Sound in perspective”. In Adam Jaworski and Nikolas Coupland (Eds.), The Discourse Reader (2nd ed.),(pp. 179-193). New York: Routledge.

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genres, namely action horror, superhero action, action thriller, action war, etc, thus the writer will just pick up two from action thriller trailers and one from action war trailers. The trailers are from the official film trailers released from the year 1990 up to around 2010. The different structure of context in trailers and the general structure of meaning-making resources will become the data of the analysis. The writer will not go into detail with every aspect of the trailers. For instance, she will not analyze every single utterance that was produced from the conversation among the characters in the trailers, but instead she will analyze how the verbal mode interacts with the visual mode. Neither will she employ reception analysis, because she will not discuss audience perception towards the coming film.

1.5 The Significance of the Study

Findings of this study are expected to be useful for theoretically, practically, and academically in some respects:

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certain meaning in the trailers. To the audience, it will give enough information to arouse their curiosity to watch the film.

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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

5.1 Conclusions

This study is concerned with the type of multimodal resources which are found in film trailers. It is aimed at describing how the multimodal resources enhance the promotional purpose of a film. In order to explain how the ways in which the promotional purpose of the film is achieved, the analysis of the moving images in the trailer is based on Rick Iedema’s representation, orientation, and organization metafunctions. The findings of the analysis reveal that the multimodal resources in the film trailers are the verbal, visual, and aural elements that exist in the trailer itself. These elements are known as the conventions of film trailers and they are used to communicate key messages to the audience. Moreover, these three elements are regarded as multimodal resources because they make meaning through a powerful combination of different modes of communication, such as the written text o n screen, spoken language, moving images, voiceover, music, and sound effects.

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The multimodal resources are used differently in all action film trailers because different film producers will have different ways in promoting their coming film.

5.2 Suggestions

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REFERENCES

Anderson, Daniel, Atkins, et.al (2006). Integrating Multimodality into composition curricula. Survey methodology and results from a CCCC research grant. Composition studies, 34(2), 59-84

Anstey, M and Geoff Bull (2010). Helping Teachers to Explore Multimodal Texts : An electronic journal for leaders in Education

Baldry, A. & Thibault, P. (2006). Multimodal Transcription and Text Analysis. London: Equinox.

Bordwell, D., & Thompson, K. (1993). Film Art: an introduction (4th ed.): McGraw- Hill Inc.

Halmari, Helena and Virtanen, Tuija. (2004). Towards understanding modern persuasion: Persuasion Across Genres. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Iedema, Rick. (2001). “Analysing Film and Television: a Social Semiotic Account of Hospital: an Unhealthy Business”. In Theo van Leeuwen and Carey Jewitt (Eds.) Handbook of VisualAnalysis (pp. 183-204). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Iedema, Rick. (2003). Visual Communication: Multimodality, resemiotization: extending the analysis of discourse as multi-semiotic practice. London: Sage.

Jones, R. (2005). You show me yours, I'll show you mine. The negotiation of shifts from textual to visual interaction in computer mediated interaction among gay

men. Visual Communication, (1), 6 9-92.

Jewitt, C. (2009). An introduction to Multimodality. In C. Jewitt (Ed), The Routledge handbook of multimodal analysis (pp. 14-27). Abingdon: Routledge.

Kau, Edvin. (Dec. 1998). Separation or combination of fragments? Reflections of editing: P.o.v.filmtidsskrift 6. Cited from (12.05.2009)

Kernan, Lisa. (2004) Coming Attractions: Reading American Trailers. Austin, Texas. University of Texas.

Kress, G. & van Leeuwen, T. (2006). Reading images: the grammar of visual design. London: Routledge.

Kress, G. & van Leeuwen, T. (2001). Multimodal discourse. London: Arnold.

Lemke, J. L. (1998). Multiplying meaning: visual and verbal semiotics in scientific text. In J. R. Martin & R. Veel (Eds.), Reading science (pp. 87–113). London: Routledge.

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Maier, C. Daniela (2009). Visual Communication.8 (2), 159

Metz, Christiana and Michael Taylor 1974. Film Language. Oxford University Press_. Miles and Huberman (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis. Sage Publications Ltd. London O’Halloran, K., Tan, S., Smith, B. & Podlasov, A. (2010). Challenges in designing digital

interfaces for the study of multimodal phenomena. Information Design Journal 18(1), 2–21.

Royce,T. & Bowcher, W. eds.( 2007) New Directions in the Analysis o f Multimodal Discourse. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Sharff, Stefan. (1982). The Elements of Cinema. Toward a Theory of Cinesthetic Impact. NewYork: Columbia University Press

Van Leeuwen, T. (2001). Semiotics and iconography. In T. van Leeuwen & C. Jewitt (Eds.), Handbook of visual analysis (pp. 92-118). London: Sage.

Van Leeuwen, T. (2004). Ten reasons why linguists should pay attention to visual

communication. . In P. Levine & R. Scollon (Eds.), Discourse & technology. Multimodal discourse analysis (pp.10-19). Georgetown, Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.

Van Leeuwen, Theo. (2006).“Sound in perspective”. In Adam Jaworski and Nikolas Coupland (Eds.), The Discourse Reader (2nd ed.),(pp. 179-193). New York: Routledge.

MULTIMODAL RESOURCES IN FILM TRAILERS.