Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:J-a:Journal Of Business Research:Vol49.Issue2.2000:
A Cross-Cultural Study of In-Store Information
Search Strategies for a Christmas Gift
Michel Laroche
CONCORDIA UNIVERSITY
Gad Saad
CONCORDIA UNIVERSITY
Chankon Kim
SAINT MARY’S UNIVERSITY
Elizabeth Browne
CONCORDIA UNIVERSITY
This study investigates usage of in-store information sources by Anglo
and Franco-Canadians while Christmas shopping. A literature review
revealed a number of situational, personal, and demographic variables
that may influence search behavior for a Christmas gift. A survey was
conducted soon after the Christmas season to explore the effects of the
identified moderators on the extent of search as pertaining to a clothing
gift. Three dimensions of in-store search were found: general information
(e.g., displays), specific information (e.g., brand), and assistance of salesclerks. Each of the three search indices was regressed on the identified
variables. Directional hypotheses were posited linking each of the moderators of search to extent of search. The models faired well both in terms
of fit and in their rate of support for the hypotheses. Distinct patterns of
in-store search behavior were found for each cultural group, some consistent with current knowledge, others providing new findings. J BUSN RES
2000. 49.113–126. 2000 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
T
he economic importance of the Christmas season to
both manufacturers and retailers is well established.
Christmas holiday sales can account for between 30
and 50% of a retailer’s total yearly sales (Gifts and Decorative
Accessories, 1987; Ryans, 1977; Banks, 1979). Gift purchases
have been placed at 10% of all retail purchases in North
America (Belk, 1979; Sherry, McGrath, and Levy, 1993). In
one study by Belk (1979), close to 30% of the reported giftgiving occasions were for Christmas.
In addition to its economic significance, Christmas gift
giving is important to the North American culture for it serves
Address correspondence to Michel Laroche, Department of Marketing, Faculty of Commerce and Administration, 1455 de Maisonneuve West, Montreal, QC H3G 1M8, Canada.
Journal of Business Research 49, 113–126 (2000)
2000 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
655 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10010
as a notable social mechanism. Otnes (1990) argued that four
characteristics distinguish Christmas from other annual giftgiving occasions including: (1) the highest level of cultural
recognition of all gift-giving occasions featuring more than
one giver and receiver; (2) more media attention than other
annual gift occasions; (3) more marketing effort than other
gift-giving occasions (e.g., Mother’s Day); (4) immediate reciprocity is expected (p. 8). Otnes concludes that “this type
of exchange could be described as the most sociologically
significant gift giving in modern American culture” (p. 8).
In today’s global economy, understanding cross-cultural
consumption differences is an imperative strategic tool for
ensuring long-term viability. While culture is the most general
and indirect socialization agent, its importance in shaping
consumption habits is nonetheless pervasive. Gift giving, while
a universal behavior found in all societies, varies in the manner
by which it is implemented across cultures. While several
theories have been proposed to explain possible gift-giving
motives, little research has been conducted on the processes
involved in selecting a gift and the likely cross-cultural differences along the latter behavior. In the current work, we investigate such differences as pertaining to information search prior
to the purchase of a Christmas gift. Specifically, we isolate
the two dominant cultures within the Quebec market, namely
French and English-Canadians, and accordingly attempt to
gauge whether differences exist in their search behavior. The
research will be limited to in-store information search for a
Christmas gift of clothing, given that several researchers have
found that clothing was the most popular Christmas gift item
(Belk, 1979; Caplow, 1982; Jolibert and Fernandez-Moreno,
1983). In summary, we investigate the relevant situational,
personal, and demographic traits that have an effect on conISSN 0148-2963/00/$–see front matter
PII S0148-2963(99)00008-9
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sumers’ external information search strategies while Christmas
gift shopping and whether these are moderated by one’s belonging to the French or English-Canadian culture.
Literature Review
Human behavior can be dichotomized into those sets of behaviors that are culturally invariant and those that have been
shaped by one’s context and culture. The former, that is,
universal behaviors, are determined by evolutionary forces
and hence are free of cultural influences. For example, recent
work in evolutionary psychology has shown that the traits
that men and women seek in potential mates is culturally
invariant (cf., Buss, 1989, 1994; Buss and Schmitt, 1993).
While evolutionary psychology is gaining prominence as a
field of inquiry, it nonetheless lags far behind cross-cultural
psychology, namely the subbranch that seeks to understand
culturally bound behaviors. Social scientists have identified
an impressive array of behaviors that are moderated by culture
(see Berry, Poortinga, Segall, and Dasen [1992] for a thorough
review). Within the marketing realm, there has been a growing
trend towards identifying specific consumer-related behaviors
(e.g., “patriotic” purchasing) that are highly prone to cultural
influences (cf., Clark, 1990; Manrai and Manrai, 1996). Gift
giving is one such behavior to which we turn next.
M. Laroche et al.
and McGrath (1989) investigated merchandise display and
store layout. It was determined that the location of the merchandise within the store had an effect on how well it sold.
Mattson (1982) found that a broad product selection was
crucial to gift shoppers, especially when choosing a second
store to visit.
Another crucial in-store information source, especially in
the context of a gift selection, is the salesclerk. For example,
suggestions offered by a salesclerk can help reduce the perceived risk for the giver. Using personal interviews with both
customers and salespeople, Sherry and McGrath (1989) concluded that, while salespeople were potentially informative,
they were not always accessed by the customers. In an earlier
study, Ryans (1977) found that in comparing in-home gifts
(gifts for people living with the respondent) to personal use
purchases, respondents relied more heavily on in-store information sources. However, the results for out-home gifts were
not significant. Finally, Otnes (1990) uncovered three clusters
of searchers in her study of Christmas shopping, of which the
“eclectic” searchers made greatest use of in-store information
sources.
Scholars have identified a slew of variables that moderate
the extent of prepurchase search. These are typically broken
down into situational, personal, and demographic variables.
A brief overview is provided below of each of the three sets
of factors.
Gift Giving
Several consumer researchers have proposed conceptual models of the gift-giving process including those by Belk (1976,
1979), Banks (1979), and Sherry (1983). Typically, the process is broken up into a set of distinct stages including the
prepurchase search for the gift, its exchange with the recipient,
and its subsequent consumption. Of most relevance to the
current work is the prepurchase search, coined the gestation
and purchase stage in Sherry’s (Sherry, 1983) and Banks’
(Banks, 1979) models, respectively. Within the Christmas giftgiving context, Otnes (1990) and Laroche, Kim, Saad, and
Browne (1997) investigated a myriad of situational, personality, and demographic variables affecting prepurchase gift
search. Smith and Beatty (1985) and Sprott and Miyazaki
(1995) also have investigated factors moderating the extent
of gift search. Given both its theoretical importance to the
information search literature and its practical implications to
retailers, it is surprising how little research has been conducted
in this area.
In-Store Information Sources
While numerous scholars have looked at external search, few
have investigated the moderators of search as carried out
specifically within a retail store (i.e., in-store information
sources and salesclerk help). Store displays and breadth of
product selection are two important in-store information
sources that have been examined in conjunction with gift
shopping. For example, in their ethnographic study, Sherry
Situational Variables
Given the inherent situational nature of the Christmas giftgiving season, it is not surprising that scholars have identified
several situational variables including dimensions of perceived
risk (e.g., financial, social), predetermined gift selection ideas,
the giver-recipient relationship, the difficulty of the gift recipient, and time pressure. A brief overview of each variable is
provided below.
The perceived risk associated with a gift purchase can be
of many types, two of the most prevalent being social and
financial risk. In the former case, one might be worried about
offending the recipient if the purchased gift is inappropriate
(e.g., buying the wrong bottle of wine for your employer’s
dinner). On the other hand, financial risk typically involves
determining the appropriate budget for the gift. Two riskreduction strategies for reducing social risk include shopping
with a trusted companion (cf., Grønhaug, 1972; Sherry and
McGrath, 1989) and obtaining a predetermined list from the
recipient (Otnes, Lowrey, and Kim, 1993). In a retail setting,
a consumer who is accompanied by a trusted companion
might substitute in-store information sources, including salespeople, with the companion’s suggestions. A somewhat different type of risk-reduction strategy is for the consumer to set
a larger budget for the gift. For example, Vincent and Zikmund
(1975) found that respondents bought more expensive items
when they were intended as a wedding present than when
purchased for personal use. Interestingly, while social risk
In-Store Information Search Strategies for a Christmas Gift
might be reduced by setting a higher budget, financial risk
simultaneously increases due to the higher cost.
Another factor affecting the perceived risk of a gift purchase
is the importance of the giver-recipient relationship. Clearly,
the more important the relationship is, the greater the consequences of a poor decision will seem. Of the few studies that
have investigated time invested for gift shopping (e.g., Ryans,
1977; Heeler, Francis, Okechuku, and Reid, 1979), it appears
that gifts to more distant people involve less effort for the
purchaser, although the evidence is circumstantial. On a related note, Sprott and Miyazaki (1995) found that the difficulty
of a gift recipient affected the extent of search, such that more
difficult recipients required greater amounts of gift search.
As previously mentioned, many consumers will typically
have an a priori gift idea prior to entering a store. This was
confirmed by Banks (1979) wherein it was reported that most
gift purchases were planned prior to shopping in the store.
Furthermore, in many instances, search was extremely limited
in that gifts were purchased after visiting only one store. Thus,
in such a situation, it is essential that brand selection for the
product class be sufficient, and additionally that in-store information be adequate enough to distinguish the brands. Thus,
while having a greater brand selection offering in a given store
reduces interstore search (i.e., fewer stores might be visited),
it is likely to increase the search within that particular store.
Finally, of all of the situational variables relevant to the
current discussion, none is as pervasive as the time pressure
that most Christmas shoppers typically experience. Given most
humans’ tendency to procrastinate, it is not surprising that
much of Christmas shopping is conducted under considerable
time duress. This ordinarily affects not only the extent of
search but also the choice of information sources (e.g., internal
memory, friends, in-store sources). The general finding has
been that an increase in time pressure yields a decrease in
information search (cf., Beatty and Smith, 1987; Sprott and
Miyazaki, 1995).
Personal Variables
Much of the research that has looked at the effects of personality traits and/or lifestyle characteristics on search behavior was
not conducted in the specific context of gift giving. In one of
the earliest such studies, Rogers (1962) found that innovators
engage in greater information search, including in-store sources.
More recently, Horton (1979) and Locander and Hermann
(1979) have demonstrated that consumers who view themselves
as bargain hunters conduct more in-store search. On the other
hand, those who were not brand loyal and were more favorable
towards generic products engage in a lesser search of in-store
information. Finally, Schaninger and Sciglimpaglia (1981) investigated the relationship between cognitive personality traits
and information acquisition. They concluded that individuals
having higher self-esteem examined a greater amount of information prior to making a final choice.
The paucity of research that has looked at the effects of
J Busn Res
2000:49:113–126
115
personality traits or lifestyle characteristics on gift-giving behavior is somewhat surprising. In one of the few studies to have
addressed this issue, Otnes (1990) uncovered three relevant
psychographic variables: (1) attitude toward or love of shopping (in the current context, this can be extended to love of
Christmas shopping), (2) tendency to use gifts for either identity formation or social bonding, and (3) attitude toward the
riskiness of gift giving.
Demographic Variables
The relationship between demographic variables and search
behavior has been addressed by several researchers. In Schaninger and Sciglimpaglia’s (Schaninger and Sciglimpaglia,
1981) study, age was negatively related to the extent of search.
Additionally, younger and more educated housewives who
were earlier in the family life cycle and of higher social class
examined more information. Recall that in her study, Otnes
(1990) uncovered three clusters of information searchers. The
respondent’s family size, age, and education level were found
to be significant discriminators of the three clusters. Incidentally, her results contradicted those of Schaninger and Sciglimpaglia vis-a`-vis the effects of age on the extent of search.
While demographic variables, such as age, have yielded
mixed results, one of the most robust findings is the differential
effect of gender on the gift-giving ritual. Overwhelmingly, it
has been shown that women are much more involved in
Christmas gift shopping (Caplow, 1982; Cheal, 1987; Sherry
and McGrath, 1989; Fischer and Arnold, 1990; Rucker et al.,
1991). Of interest to the present study are gender differences
specifically pertaining to the use of in-store information sources
while gift shopping, a topic that has been addressed rarely in
the literature.
The Case for Including Cultural Variables
As previously mentioned, gift giving appears in all societies
even though the rituals and practices vary across cultures. The
motivations for providing a gift are context dependent, and
they include altruism, economic concerns, obligation, social
exchange, and communication (cf., Wolfinbarger, 1990). Trivers (1971) argued that reciprocal altruism (a combination of
obligation and altruism) is an evolved trait that is found in
all cultures. In the current context of the Christmas gift-giving
ritual, the predominant motivation is a sense of obligation and/
or adherence to a cultural norm. Goodwin, Smith, and Spiggle
(1990) defined two types of obligations, namely, reciprocity
and ritual, both being integral to the Christmas gift-giving ritual.
Much of the research on gift giving stems from the anthropological tradition whereby the focus has been on investigating
such behavior within the context of tribal and primitive societies. As such, while anthropologists have looked at gift-giving
practices of numerous cultures, few if any have attempted to
specifically investigate cross-cultural differences along that
behavior. Within the consumer behavior tradition, there also
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appears to be a dearth of relevant research, as evidenced by
the ensuing quotes:
No one seems to have conducted cross-cultural studies of
this phenomenon (Jolibert and Fernandez-Moreno, 1983,
p. 191).
The absence of any comparative or cross-national study of
gift giving is part of a more wide-spread circumstance
(Jolibert and Fernandez-Moreno, 1983, p. 192).
The study of gift giving cross-culturally is still in its infancy
. . ., but offers rich avenues of additional inquiry (Beatty,
Kahle, and Homer, 1991, p. 150).
Jolibert and Fernandez-Moreno (1983) compared French and
Mexican Christmas gift-giving practices. The authors conclude
that the most challenging endeavor in this area of inquiry is
to identify the specific cultural traits and traditions that generate such cross-cultural differences (p. 196). Several researchers
have accordingly pursued such a strategy. Belk (1984) argued
that gift giving would vary across cultures based on the manner
by which an individual’s self-concept was defined. Green and
Alden (1988) compared American and Japanese gift-giving practices and found considerable differences across all stages of the
process. The differential need for group affiliation between the
two cultures was one of the traits used to explain the obtained
results. Beatty, Kahle, and Homer (1991) investigated the
frequency of gift giving and the exertion of effort in selecting
a gift in the American and the Far East cultures. The authors
found that, irrespective of culture, personal values (e.g., warm
relationships with others versus fun and excitement in life)
were a good predictor of the latter two gift-giving behaviors.
In summary, while there does appear to be an increased
interest in the separate areas of prepurchase gift search and
cross-cultural differences in gift giving, little work has investigated the overlapping of the two fields, namely cross-cultural
differences in the prepurchase gift search. The current work
attempts to address this paucity, by specifically looking at
French and English Canadian differences in terms of the latter
behavior. Prior to positing the hypotheses and research objectives, we provide a brief overview of the literature that has
addressed Franco and Anglo-Canadian differences in several
consumer-related domains.
French–English Canadian
Consumption Differences
Of the 7.3 million people in Quebec (1995 census estimate),
the two dominant cultures are the French and English Canadian ones comprising 80 and 6.3% of the population, respectively. Thus, in addition to its theoretical importance, understanding Franco-Anglo consumption differences has clear
pragmatic implications.
Differences between French and English-Canadian consumers arise for more reasons than solely linguistic ones
(Saint-Jacques and Mallen, 1981). Several studies have shown
M. Laroche et al.
that there exists significant consumption differences between
the members of the two cultures. Tamilia (1978) found that
in an advertising context, Francophones react more to the
source of the ad (e.g., celebrity endorser) whereas Anglophones are more reactive to a message’s content. Additionally, Francophones are more introspective, emotional, and
humanistic and less pragmatic and materialistic than their
Anglophone counterparts (He´on, 1990). The former tend to
associate price with value, are more willing to pay higher
prices for convenience and premium brands, and are more
brand loyal (Vary, 1992). Greater brand loyalty might typically
lead to reduced information search prior to a purchase, a
result confirmed by Muller and Bolger (1985) in the context
of a car purchase. Hui, Joy, Kim, and Laroche (1993) found
that, among other things, Anglophones were less concerned
for children, were less innovative, had less opinion leadership,
and were less fashion conscious. On the other hand, they
demonstrated greater price consciousness, had a higher liking
for use of credit, and displayed greater brand loyalty (contradicting earlier work, e.g., Mallen, 1977).
Scholars have attempted to understand the factors that
might explicate the consumption differences between the
members of the two cultures. Early work by Lefranc¸ois and
Chatel (1967) proposed that such differences were due to
socioeconomic factors, namely, that the traditionally lower
socioeconomic status of the Francophones translated into corresponding consumption differences. However, several researchers have since disproved the socioeconomic hypothesis
(Palda, 1967; Thomas, 1975; Schaninger, Bourgeois, and Buss,
1985; Chebat, Laroche, and Malette, 1988; Joy, Kim, and
Laroche, 1991). He´nault (1971) argued that there exist eight
cultural traits by which the two cultures differ. Of the most
relevant to the current work are that the French are more
individualistic, less conformist, less pragmatic, have a higher
propensity to spend, and are more likely to be financed as
opposed to being the financer. Mallen (1977) proposed that
the consumption differences were due to three general differences in traits: (1) the “sensate” trait involving the five senses,
namely the French are more likely to react to appeals involving
the senses; (2) the “conservative” trait that relates to low risktaking behavior and strong family orientation, for example,
being more risk-averse; and (3) the “nonprice cognitive” trait,
which is an outcome of the other two traits. In other words,
if the French like a product due to some sensate trait, they will
repurchase it irrespective of its price (within some acceptable
range of prices). Bouchard (1983) proposed that the French
have six common specific cultural and historical roots that
translate into 36 responsive chords (i.e., six chords per root).
Of most relevance to the current article are the following seven
chords: shrewdness, superconsumerism, eccentric taste, herd
mentality, conservatism, joie de vivre, and individualism.
Clearly, the French and English Canadians possess different
cultural traits, customs, and traditions subsequently yielding
differences in their consumer-related behaviors. Of present
In-Store Information Search Strategies for a Christmas Gift
concern is the identification of those cultural traits that should
moderate prepurchase gift search. For example, given that the
French have a stronger religious background, they might place
greater importance on the Christmas season. Accordingly, this
would increase their task involvement when purchasing a
Christmas gift. Similarly, given the nonprice cognitive trait of
the French, price-related factors might be less relevant when
shopping for a gift.
Objectives of the Current Research
The study has three key objectives. First, it will gauge whether
the extent of search conducted prior to a gift purchase is
moderated by culture. Several cross-cultural psychologists
have proposed that a key cultural value is the “reflective versus
action-oriented” continuum. Clearly, this trait might have an
effect on the amount of deliberation that members of a particular culture engage in prior to committing to a final decision.
For example, Punnett (1995) compared Chinese and American college students along several key cultural dimensions
including “impulsivity”, a trait that is likely related to the
above continuum. Positing an a priori hypothesis in the current context is very difficult given that many of the cultural
differences between the two cultures would yield contradictory predictions regarding the extent of search. For example,
the greater brand loyalty typically exhibited by the French
would imply a decrease in search while their Catholic root
might yield greater task involvement in the Christmas giftgiving ritual thus resulting in an increase in search.
The second objective of the study is to develop comprehensive models of the gift-giving search process for each of the
two cultures and subsequently to explore whether significant
cross-cultural differences exist in the results obtained. A myriad of moderators of search (situational, personal, and demographic variables) will be integrated into general regression
models. With the exception of Laroche, Kim, Saad, and
Browne (1997), no other study has attempted to include such
a large set of variables within one model of search. As such,
the theoretical implications of the endeavor appear fruitful.
Thirdly, we wish to test directional hypotheses between the
moderators of search and the extent of search. For example,
one might posit a positive relationship between the cost a gift
and the extent of search. Accordingly, should the regression
model yield a significant coefficient for the latter moderator
(i.e., cost of gift), the expectation would be that its sign should
be positive. This exercise would allow us to fully gauge the
explanatory power of the models.
Research Methodology
Survey Administration
In terms of timing, the survey was conducted soon after the
Christmas season was over, to ensure that the clothing gift
purchase experience was still fresh in the respondent’s mem-
J Busn Res
2000:49:113–126
117
ory. The data came from a sample of residents of a major
metropolitan area, by using the area sampling method. The
data collection was confined to a selected number of census
tracts in the residential areas of the city. Interviewers approached households on randomly selected streets in the chosen census tracts, and a questionnaire was left with the consenting respondent to be completed and mailed back (postagepaid) at his or her convenience. An additional procedure also
was employed by randomly approaching individuals in the
hallways of a large shopping mall and leaving with the consenting respondent a questionnaire to be mailed at his/her
convenience.
Equal numbers of English and French respondents were
sought. Self-identification was used to categorize the respondents into the two groups. A total of 1,026 questionnaires
were distributed using the procedures described above, 493
in English and 533 in French. It was deemed that this number
would yield a sufficient response. A total of 368 usable questionnaires were returned, yielding an overall return rate of
36%. Of these, 155 were from English respondents and 213
from French respondents, a response rate of 31 and 40%,
respectively. As can be seen in Table 1, the majority of respondents are female and are married or its equivalent, and they
tend to possess above average education and family income.
Questionnaire
The questionnaire was divided into three parts: situational,
personal, and demographic variables. Only the variables pertinent to the present analysis will be discussed here.
Part I of the questionnaire contained several questions using
a 10-point Likert scale anchored at 1 5 strongly disagree
and 10 5 strongly agree, designed to measure consumers’
purchase of a specific Christmas gift, as well as their use of instore information sources for the same purchase. Respondents
were requested to think of a particular gift of clothing that
they had actually purchased for Christmas. As previously mentioned, clothing was selected because a review of the literature
indicated that clothing was the most popular type of gift
purchased, particularly at Christmas (Belk, 1979; Caplow,
1982). First, 33 questions measured purchase-specific situational variables identified in the literature review (see Table
2), while 10 questions measured actual in-store information
search conducted by the respondent for the specific Christmas
gift purchase (the dependent variables, see Table 3). Part I
also contained one question as to for whom the gift was
intended (coded as 1 5 primary relation, e.g., father; 2 5
secondary relation, e.g., sister or aunt; 3 5 tertiary relation,
e.g., cousin; 4 5 nonrelation), and one question measuring
availability of information in the store (“Everything I needed
to know about the clothing item was available in the store”).
Part II contained 56 questions designed to measure the
personal characteristics of the respondents, by using a 10point Likert-type scale anchored at 1 5 strongly disagree and
10 5 strongly agree. These questions captured various aspects
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M. Laroche et al.
Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of the Sample
English (%)
Gender (p 5 0.09)
Male
18.0
Female
82.0
Marital status (p , 0.01)
Single
25.7
Separated/divorced
10.1
Married or equivalent
64.2
Household income (p , 0.01)
Less than $30,000
16.7
$30,000–$39,999
12.0
$40,000–$49,999
16.7
$50,000–$59,999
17.3
$60,000–$69,999
5.3
Over $70,000
32.0
Average age of youngest child
living at home (p 5 0.29) (years)
11.0
Age (p 5 0.02)
Less than 30
22.0
30–39
19.3
40–49
32.0
50–59
19.3
Over 60
7.3
Family size (p 5 0.17)
Two or less
25.9
Three
15.0
Four
37.4
Five or more
21.8
Education (p 5 0.10)
(highest level attained)
High school or less
22.0
College
30.0
University
48.0
French (%)
25.6
74.4
12.8
7.4
79.8
4.9
5.3
7.8
9.7
21.4
51.0
9.9
18.1
34.3
30.3
12.3
4.9
24.0
22.0
39.5
14.5
16.2
24.5
59.3
of an individual’s tastes, preferences, or attitudes that could
be related to that person’s Christmas shopping behavior (see
Table 4). Most of these questions were adapted from the
lifestyle instrument used by Wells and Tigert (1971). Other
questions relating specifically to Christmas or gift shopping
and attitude toward time pressure were either developed anew
or adapted from the instrument used by Otnes (1990).
Part III of the questionnaire contained a number of questions related to culture. The first set of questions involved
evaluating the usage frequency of English and French across
11 activities. These have been shown by Kim, Laroche, and
Lee (1989) to be a reliable single measure of acculturation.
Four questions were used to measure identification (I consider
myself to be English/French Canadian …; My parents are
English/French Canadians …). Three questions were related
to religion: I consider myself to be a strong Protestant/Catholic
believer, I had a strong Protestant/Catholic childhood upbringing, Protestant/Catholic beliefs are an important part of
my life. All these questions were on a 10-point Likert-type
scale anchored at 1 5 strongly disagree, 10 5 strongly agree.
Since Christmas is a religious holiday, we added this variable
to see if the strength of religious beliefs is a motivating factor in
in-store information search. The last part of the questionnaire
included standard questions about the respondent’s gender,
age, marital status, household income, family size, age of the
youngest child at home, and education, among others. The
questionnaire was first written in English, then translated into
French, except for the questions taken from Kim, Laroche,
and Lee (1989) and Hui, Joy, Kim, and Laroche (1993), which
were already available in French. The translation was verified
by two French-speaking people.
Data Preparation
The hypothesized relationships between usage of in-store information sources and the situational, personal, and demographic variables were examined using multiple regression
analyses. However, prior to running the regression analyses,
some of the data was factor analyzed to develop measures of
the various constructs, test their reliability, and recode them.
From Part I, all of the situational questions together with
the three questions relating to time pressure also were factor
analyzed using Varimax rotation. The solution produced 10
factors explaining 64.0% of the variance, the first eight exhibiting good reliabilities, and the last two marginal reliabilities,
especially for the French subsample. Table 2 presents the
factor loadings and Cronbach’s alphas. While not shown in
Table 2, recall that Part I contained two additional constructs
(“availability of information” and “close relationship”), which
were each measured by a single item.
Second, the 10 questions in Part I pertaining to in-store
information search effort were factor analyzed using Varimax
rotation. The solution produced three factors explaining
67.7% of the variance: in-store search for general information,
in-store search for specific information, and information accessed from a salesclerk. The first two constructs involved
information search that can be conducted alone by the giver,
with no interaction with other people, whereas the third factor
requires personal interaction with the salesclerks. Table 3
presents the factor loadings and Cronbach’s alphas.
Finally, from Part II of the questionnaire, all the questions
measuring personal characteristics were factor analyzed using
Varimax rotation. The solution produced eight factors all exhibiting good reliabilities, and collectively they explained
62.1% of the variance. Table 4 presents the factor loadings
and the Cronbach’s alphas.
A reliability analysis was also performed on the culturerelated measures. The 12 items measuring acculturation had
Cronbach’s alphas of 0.80 and 0.89 for the English and French
samples. The four items measuring identity had Cronbach’s
alphas of 0.69 and 0.62, respectively. The three items measuring religious beliefs and upbringing had Cronbach’s alphas of
0.93 and 0.89. Religious beliefs and religious upbringing were
related to the religion (Protestant or Catholic) declared by the
respondent. For the multiple regression analyses, the mean
of items in each factor was used as the construct measure.
In-Store Information Search Strategies for a Christmas Gift
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119
Table 2. Factors for Situational Variables
Description
Time pressure
Costly gift
Risky gift
Strict budget
Predetermined gift
selection
Difficult recipient
List
Helpful companion
Good selection
Familiarity
Item
When I am Christmas shopping, I am always pressed for time
I always feel rushed while Christmas shopping
There is never enough time to get all of the Christmas shopping done
This clothing gift was very expensive
The budget for this gift of clothing was higher than I usually set for other Christmas
gifts
The cost of the actual gift exceeded my budget for it
I would feel really bad if I bought someone a gift that they did not like
I often worry about what can happen if I buy a Christmas gift for someone and they
do not like it
I will not like the consequences if the recipient does not like the clothing gift
It is important that I get just the right gift for this recipient
I often feel that I run a high risk of buying someone a Christmas gift they will not
like
I had a definite budget in mind before shopping for this clothing gift
Money was no object for this particular clothing gift (reversed)
I was reluctant to exceed my budget for this gift
Price is the last thing I consider when I am buying a gift (reversed)
If an item is too expensive, I will not buy it as a gift
I always stick to my budget when buying gifts for others
I had everything decided about the garment before I got to the store
I knew exactly what to buy for this recipient
I had no idea what I was going to get as a gift for this person before I started shopping
(reversed)
It is especially risky to buy gifts for this particular recipient
This recipient is easy to buy gifts for (reversed)
The recipient gave me a list to choose from
I bought this item from a list given to me by the receipient
While I was shopping in the store, I consulted with a friend in choosing the clothing
gift
I was shopping with someone else who helped me in choosing this clothing gift
It was very easy to shop around and compare other similar clothing items
There were many brands to choose from once I had decided what to buy for this
recipient
There was a large selection of gifts I could have bought for this recipient
I am not very familiar with this type of clothing (reversed)
I have bought this type of clothing often in the past
Factor
Loading
Cronbach
Alpha (E/F)
0.8637
0.8661
0.7698
0.8347
0.8163
0.7670/0.8354
0.8077
0.8454
0.8188
0.7476/0.7902
0.6159/0.6222
0.6615
0.5508
0.3928
0.7703
0.7658
0.6998
0.6948
0.6034
0.4927
0.7902
0.7572
0.7453
0.7765
0.7312
0.9259
0.9000
0.9098
0.7758/0.7714
0.6413/0.7382
0.6505/0.5639
0.9259/0.8465
0.8261/0.7984
0.8976
0.7324
0.6511
0.5983/0.3775
0.5378
0.8164
0.6182
0.4920/0.3550
Factor
Loading
Cronbach
Alpha (E/F)
I looked at all the items in the display area where I bought the gift
I walked around the store looking at the display of all merchandise
I checked all the prices very carefully
I spent a lot of time comparing the brands or clothing items in the store
I read all the signs around the display area
I very carefully read the manufacturer’s label
I very carefully examined the packaging information
I tried to get as much information as possible in the store about this
clothing item
0.8464
0.8153
0.7305
0.6557
0.5396
0.8880
0.8161
0.6198
0.8335/0.8174
I received a lot of help from the salesclerk
The salesclerks in the store were readily available if I needed any help
0.8566
0.7768
0.6805/0.5145
Table 3. Factors for In-Store Information Search Effort
Description
Impersonal sources
General information search
Specific information search
Personal source
Salesclerk help
Item
0.7453/0.7918
120
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M. Laroche et al.
Table 4. Factors for Personal Characteristics
Description
Traditional Christmas lover
Bargain hunter
Influencer
Leader
Thoughtful giver
Generics buyer
Fashion conscious
Identity shaper
Item
I love the Christmas season
I look forward to Christmas every year
I am strongly attached to all the Christmas traditions
Christmas is my favorite time of year
When it comes to Christmas, I follow all the traditional customs of the
season
I love to Christmas shop
It is important to get into the Christmas spirit by participating in the season’s
traditional activities
Christmas shopping is one of my least favorite activities (reversed)
In general I shop a lot for “specials” or discounts
I am willing to spend more time shopping in order to find bargains
A person can save a lot of money by shopping around for bargains
Prior to shopping, I check all the newspapers and magazines for gift ideas
and prices
I often try new brands before my friends and neighbors do
When I see a new brand on the shelf I often buy it
I sometimes influence what my friends buy
People come to me more often than I go to them for information on brands
I like to try new and different things
My friends and/or neighbors often come to me for advice
I think I possess more self-confidence than most people
I like to be considered a leader
I am more independent than most people
I conduct a lot of research about what the person would enjoy before I go
shopping at Christmas
I watch carefully the people I am buying gifts for to see what they would
really like
It is important to get gifts that people will enjoy
I like to put a lot of thought into the gifts I buy
Generics are often as good as advertised brands
Generics are not much different from name brands except for the packaging
Generic products provide good value for what I pay
I usually have one or more outfits that are of the latest style
An important part of my life and activities is dressing smartly
When I must choose between dressing for fashion or for comfort, I choose
the former
I often give Christmas gifts that help to shape the recipient’s personality
I often give Christmas presents to people in order to reinforce some aspect
of ther identity
Finally, demographic variables measured on nominal scales
were converted to dummy variables (gender: female 5 1,
male 5 0); or interval variables (marital status was converted
to: single, separated/divorced/widow, and married/living together). In summary, reliable and significant factors were
found for the personal, situational, and culture-related variables and for in-store information search.
Results
The data was analyzed for relationships between the three
groups of independent variables (personal, situational, and
demographic) and the three dependent variables related to instore information search and effort. Separate stepwise multiple
Factor
Loading
Cronbach
Alpha (E/F)
0.8852
0.8803
0.8325
0.8432
0.7585
0.8989/0.9225
0.7516
0.6516
0.6354
0.8641
0.8091
0.6285
0.5207
0.6864
0.6507
0.6180
0.6085
0.5825
0.4215
0.8244
0.7549
0.7097
0.7010
0.7211/0.7056
0.8054/0.7155
0.8039/0.6985
0.7133/0.6824
0.7199
0.6681
0.5327
0.8532
0.7990
0.7941
0.7475
0.7053
0.6960
0.8409
0.7353
0.8955/0.6725
0.7128/0.5901
0.5886/0.7191
regression analyses were run for each dependent variable and
for each subgroup1. The results for each of the three regression
analyses are summarized in Table 5 for the English subgroup
and in Table 6 for the French subgroup.
Objective 1: Is Extent of Search
Moderated by Culture?
An ANCOVA analysis (controlling for education, income, gender, marital status, age) was conducted for each of the three
search indices to determine whether belonging to a given
1
Twelve respondents were dropped (five and seven from the English and
French samples, respectively) following an analysis of outliers.
In-Store Information Search Strategies for a Christmas Gift
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121
Table 5. Results of the Regression Analyses: English Subsample
Dependent Variable
General information search
Constant
F value:
Specific information search
Constant
F value:
Salesclerk help
Independent Variables
Coefficient
t
Group R2
Marginal
Contribution
Thoughtful giver
Traditional Christmas lover
Fashion conscious
Strict budget
Costly gift
Predetermined gift selection
Good selection
Gender
Age of youngest child living at home
Martial status
0.3398
0.1382
20.1045
0.4821
0.2183
20.1514
0.1226
1.2065
0.0463
20.2063
20.5612
9.82a
20.2221
0.5008
20.2494
0.1999
0.2984
0.1681
0.1083
20.3481
0.5082
0.6565
0.0495
0.0913
26.2576
5.99a
20.2209
20.1880
0.1478
0.1686
0.4744
0.2371
0.2503
20.3631
20.1415
20.1435
20.3380
0.2572
0.2461
2.3295
6.33a
3.169a
1.787b
21.511
5.850a
3.241a
22.090b
1.638
2.857a
2.196b
21.570c
20.454
Adjusted R2
22.050b
3.747a
22.893a
2.213b
3.083a
2.121b
1.823b
21.896b
3.230a
3.320a
1.941b
1.576c
23.939a
Adjusted R2
22.932a
21.472c
21.841b
2.107b
6.400a
3.091a
2.345b
22.016b
21.759b
21.538c
22.343b
1.508c
1.544c
1.361
Adjusted R2
0.0486
0.0707
0.2371
0.2270
0.1059
0.0592
0.3719
0.0645
0.0820
0.0762
0.0808
0.1359
0.1630
0.3032
0.0458
0.0538
0.2704
0.3054
0.0000
0.0312
Leader
Thoughtful giver
Identity shaper
Fashion conscious
Strict budget
Costly gift
Helpful companion
Close relationship
Age
Education
Age of youngest chld living at home
Religion
Generics buyer
Thoughtful giver
Fashion conscious
Identity shaper
Availability of information
Costly gift
Risky gift
Close relationship
Predetermined gift selection
Strict budget
Size of family
Education
Marital status
Constant
F value:
0.3461
The Group adjusted R2 is obtained when only the group of variables (personal, situational, demographics) is regressed on the dependent variables. The marginal contribution is the
loss of adjusted R2 obtained when the group of variables is removed from the regression.
a
Significant at p , 0.01 (one-way).
b
Significant at p , 0.05 (one-way).
c
Significant at p , 0.10 (one-way).
culture influenced one’s extent of prepurchase gift search. The
sole significant difference was for general information whereby
the English engaged in greater search (p , 0.02).
In the multicultural context of the Quebec market where
many cultural groups are in continuous contact with one
another, it is important that cross-cultural studies incorporate
acculturation as a key covariate. The latter refers to the degree
to which the values and norms of an individual or a cultural
group are adopted by those of another group. On the other
hand, one’s ethnic identification, is a de facto characteristic,
which will be impossible to compromise regardless of the
extent and length of contact with the majority cultural group.
Language(s) used by minority group members, especially in
the choice of mass media such as radio, television, and newspaper, is one aspect that is partly determined by the length
and extent of their contact with the majority group (Kim,
Laroche, and Lee, 1989). Identification and language acculturation were therefore used in this article to measure culture
change. Clearly, highly acculturated individuals might have
weakened possible effects by decreasing the a priori differences
122
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M. Laroche et al.
Table 6. Results of the Regression Analyses: French Subsample
Dependent Variable
General information search
Specific information search
Salesclerk help
Marginal
Contribution
Independent Variables
Coefficient
t
Group R2
Thoughtful giver
Bargain hunter
Generics buyer
Influencer
Strict budget
Difficult recipient
Time pressure
Religion
Constant
F value:
Thoughtful giver
Bargain hunter
Strict budget
Predetermined gift selection
Good selection
Religion
Education
Constant
F value:
Generics buyer
Fashion conscious
Availability of information
Costly gift
Time pressure
Helpful companion
Gender
Acculturation
Education
Age of youngest child living at home
Size of family
Constant
F value:
0.2628
0.1646
20.1488
0.1534
0.5004
20.1770
20.0888
0.0944
0.2631
14.41a
0.3025
0.2137
0.3433
0.2077
0.2177
0.1700
20.2792
23.4050
13.56a
20.2107
0.1203
0.4311
0.3114
0.1033
20.0723
20.9066
20.2205
0.2683
0.0330
20.2025
1.4008
11.23a
2.753a
2.021b
22.071b
1.702b
6.970a
22.893a
1.608c
1.905b
0.274
Adjusted R2
2.547a
2.174b
3.906a
2.889a
2.462a
2.750a
1.596c
22.565a
Adusted R2
22.993a
1.632c
7.202a
5.764a
1.795b
21.538c
22.716a
22.527a
1.830b
1.701b
21.394c
1.167
Adjusted R2
0.1659
0.0739
0.2427
0.1738
0.0239
0.0087
0.3436
0.1614
20.0476
0.1977
0.1042
0.0800
0.0299
0.3002
0.0210
0.0307
0.2715
0.2681
0.0615
0.0592
0.3554
The group adjusted R2 is obtained when only the group of variables (personal, situational, demographics) is regressed on the dependent variables. The marginal contribution is the
loss of adjusted R2 obtained when the group of variables is removed from the regression.
a
Significant at p , 0.01 (one-way).
b
Significant at p , 0.05 (one-way).
c
Significant at p , 0.10 (one-way).
between the two cultures. Thus, following the temporary removal of the highly acculturated individuals from both samples, the ANCOVA analysis was repeated. In this case, the
sole significant difference was for salesclerk help, whereby the
French engaged in greater search (p , 0.01). This accords
with the results of He´on (1990), namely that the French are
more humanistic, which in this case translates into greater
human interaction. Table 7 displays the search results for both
sets of samples (i.e., the complete samples and those wherein
the highly acculturated individuals were removed2).
Objective 2: Explore Comprehensive Models
of Search and Compare Between the Two Cultures
Both Tables 5 and 6 display the results of three regression
equations, namely one for each of the three search indices.
2
For this analysis, the removal of the highly acculturated individuals
from both samples yielded 78 “strong” English individuals and 75 “strong”
French respondents, respectively.
Looking at the adjusted R2 values allows one to gauge the
data fit to each of the regression models. For the English
sample, these were 0.3719, 0.3032, and 0.3461 for general,
specific, and salesclerk information, respectively. On the other
hand, for the French sample, the corresponding adjusted R2
values were 0.3436, 0.3002, and 0.3554. Thus, it appears
that the regression models yielded equally good fits not only
when comparing across cultures but also across search indices.
The last two columns in Tables 5 and 6 report the group
adjusted R2 and the marginal contribution scores. The former
is obtained when only the group of variables (personal, situational, demographics) is regressed on the dependent variables.
The marginal contribution is the loss of adjusted R2 obtained
when the group of variables is removed from the regression.
Based on the group R2 and marginal contribution scores, it
appears that the situational variables were the most important
ones to both samples, an intuitive result given the inherent
situational nature of the Christmas gift-giving season.
The significant coefficients from Tables 5 and 6 are summa-
In-Store Information Search Strategies for a Christmas Gift
Table 7. Extent of Search for Each of the Three Search Indices
I
Complete data set
General information
Specific information
Salesclerk help
Removal of acculturated
respondents from
both groups
General information
Specific information
Salesclerk help
English
French
p-value
6.48
4.87
5.09
5.80
5.38
5.54
0.012
0.106
0.123
630
5.23
4.69
5.70
5.11
5.78
0.148
0.803
0.009
123
J Busn Res
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36 and 26 significant slopes, respectively, suggesting that the
former have a more complex search process. The number of
times that the two cultures yielded a significant slope on the
same search index and with the same directionality (i.e., same
sign) was 10. On the other hand, on only two occasions did
the two cultures yield a significant slope for a given search
index but with opposite directionality. For the 38 remaining
cases (i.e., 62 2 20 2 4), there was a significant coefficient
for only one of the two cultures. Of the latter 38 cases, 14
were from the French sample whereas 24 were from the English sample. A breakdown of the 38 cases across the three
search indices reveals that general, speci
Search Strategies for a Christmas Gift
Michel Laroche
CONCORDIA UNIVERSITY
Gad Saad
CONCORDIA UNIVERSITY
Chankon Kim
SAINT MARY’S UNIVERSITY
Elizabeth Browne
CONCORDIA UNIVERSITY
This study investigates usage of in-store information sources by Anglo
and Franco-Canadians while Christmas shopping. A literature review
revealed a number of situational, personal, and demographic variables
that may influence search behavior for a Christmas gift. A survey was
conducted soon after the Christmas season to explore the effects of the
identified moderators on the extent of search as pertaining to a clothing
gift. Three dimensions of in-store search were found: general information
(e.g., displays), specific information (e.g., brand), and assistance of salesclerks. Each of the three search indices was regressed on the identified
variables. Directional hypotheses were posited linking each of the moderators of search to extent of search. The models faired well both in terms
of fit and in their rate of support for the hypotheses. Distinct patterns of
in-store search behavior were found for each cultural group, some consistent with current knowledge, others providing new findings. J BUSN RES
2000. 49.113–126. 2000 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
T
he economic importance of the Christmas season to
both manufacturers and retailers is well established.
Christmas holiday sales can account for between 30
and 50% of a retailer’s total yearly sales (Gifts and Decorative
Accessories, 1987; Ryans, 1977; Banks, 1979). Gift purchases
have been placed at 10% of all retail purchases in North
America (Belk, 1979; Sherry, McGrath, and Levy, 1993). In
one study by Belk (1979), close to 30% of the reported giftgiving occasions were for Christmas.
In addition to its economic significance, Christmas gift
giving is important to the North American culture for it serves
Address correspondence to Michel Laroche, Department of Marketing, Faculty of Commerce and Administration, 1455 de Maisonneuve West, Montreal, QC H3G 1M8, Canada.
Journal of Business Research 49, 113–126 (2000)
2000 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
655 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10010
as a notable social mechanism. Otnes (1990) argued that four
characteristics distinguish Christmas from other annual giftgiving occasions including: (1) the highest level of cultural
recognition of all gift-giving occasions featuring more than
one giver and receiver; (2) more media attention than other
annual gift occasions; (3) more marketing effort than other
gift-giving occasions (e.g., Mother’s Day); (4) immediate reciprocity is expected (p. 8). Otnes concludes that “this type
of exchange could be described as the most sociologically
significant gift giving in modern American culture” (p. 8).
In today’s global economy, understanding cross-cultural
consumption differences is an imperative strategic tool for
ensuring long-term viability. While culture is the most general
and indirect socialization agent, its importance in shaping
consumption habits is nonetheless pervasive. Gift giving, while
a universal behavior found in all societies, varies in the manner
by which it is implemented across cultures. While several
theories have been proposed to explain possible gift-giving
motives, little research has been conducted on the processes
involved in selecting a gift and the likely cross-cultural differences along the latter behavior. In the current work, we investigate such differences as pertaining to information search prior
to the purchase of a Christmas gift. Specifically, we isolate
the two dominant cultures within the Quebec market, namely
French and English-Canadians, and accordingly attempt to
gauge whether differences exist in their search behavior. The
research will be limited to in-store information search for a
Christmas gift of clothing, given that several researchers have
found that clothing was the most popular Christmas gift item
(Belk, 1979; Caplow, 1982; Jolibert and Fernandez-Moreno,
1983). In summary, we investigate the relevant situational,
personal, and demographic traits that have an effect on conISSN 0148-2963/00/$–see front matter
PII S0148-2963(99)00008-9
114
J Busn Res
2000:49:113–126
sumers’ external information search strategies while Christmas
gift shopping and whether these are moderated by one’s belonging to the French or English-Canadian culture.
Literature Review
Human behavior can be dichotomized into those sets of behaviors that are culturally invariant and those that have been
shaped by one’s context and culture. The former, that is,
universal behaviors, are determined by evolutionary forces
and hence are free of cultural influences. For example, recent
work in evolutionary psychology has shown that the traits
that men and women seek in potential mates is culturally
invariant (cf., Buss, 1989, 1994; Buss and Schmitt, 1993).
While evolutionary psychology is gaining prominence as a
field of inquiry, it nonetheless lags far behind cross-cultural
psychology, namely the subbranch that seeks to understand
culturally bound behaviors. Social scientists have identified
an impressive array of behaviors that are moderated by culture
(see Berry, Poortinga, Segall, and Dasen [1992] for a thorough
review). Within the marketing realm, there has been a growing
trend towards identifying specific consumer-related behaviors
(e.g., “patriotic” purchasing) that are highly prone to cultural
influences (cf., Clark, 1990; Manrai and Manrai, 1996). Gift
giving is one such behavior to which we turn next.
M. Laroche et al.
and McGrath (1989) investigated merchandise display and
store layout. It was determined that the location of the merchandise within the store had an effect on how well it sold.
Mattson (1982) found that a broad product selection was
crucial to gift shoppers, especially when choosing a second
store to visit.
Another crucial in-store information source, especially in
the context of a gift selection, is the salesclerk. For example,
suggestions offered by a salesclerk can help reduce the perceived risk for the giver. Using personal interviews with both
customers and salespeople, Sherry and McGrath (1989) concluded that, while salespeople were potentially informative,
they were not always accessed by the customers. In an earlier
study, Ryans (1977) found that in comparing in-home gifts
(gifts for people living with the respondent) to personal use
purchases, respondents relied more heavily on in-store information sources. However, the results for out-home gifts were
not significant. Finally, Otnes (1990) uncovered three clusters
of searchers in her study of Christmas shopping, of which the
“eclectic” searchers made greatest use of in-store information
sources.
Scholars have identified a slew of variables that moderate
the extent of prepurchase search. These are typically broken
down into situational, personal, and demographic variables.
A brief overview is provided below of each of the three sets
of factors.
Gift Giving
Several consumer researchers have proposed conceptual models of the gift-giving process including those by Belk (1976,
1979), Banks (1979), and Sherry (1983). Typically, the process is broken up into a set of distinct stages including the
prepurchase search for the gift, its exchange with the recipient,
and its subsequent consumption. Of most relevance to the
current work is the prepurchase search, coined the gestation
and purchase stage in Sherry’s (Sherry, 1983) and Banks’
(Banks, 1979) models, respectively. Within the Christmas giftgiving context, Otnes (1990) and Laroche, Kim, Saad, and
Browne (1997) investigated a myriad of situational, personality, and demographic variables affecting prepurchase gift
search. Smith and Beatty (1985) and Sprott and Miyazaki
(1995) also have investigated factors moderating the extent
of gift search. Given both its theoretical importance to the
information search literature and its practical implications to
retailers, it is surprising how little research has been conducted
in this area.
In-Store Information Sources
While numerous scholars have looked at external search, few
have investigated the moderators of search as carried out
specifically within a retail store (i.e., in-store information
sources and salesclerk help). Store displays and breadth of
product selection are two important in-store information
sources that have been examined in conjunction with gift
shopping. For example, in their ethnographic study, Sherry
Situational Variables
Given the inherent situational nature of the Christmas giftgiving season, it is not surprising that scholars have identified
several situational variables including dimensions of perceived
risk (e.g., financial, social), predetermined gift selection ideas,
the giver-recipient relationship, the difficulty of the gift recipient, and time pressure. A brief overview of each variable is
provided below.
The perceived risk associated with a gift purchase can be
of many types, two of the most prevalent being social and
financial risk. In the former case, one might be worried about
offending the recipient if the purchased gift is inappropriate
(e.g., buying the wrong bottle of wine for your employer’s
dinner). On the other hand, financial risk typically involves
determining the appropriate budget for the gift. Two riskreduction strategies for reducing social risk include shopping
with a trusted companion (cf., Grønhaug, 1972; Sherry and
McGrath, 1989) and obtaining a predetermined list from the
recipient (Otnes, Lowrey, and Kim, 1993). In a retail setting,
a consumer who is accompanied by a trusted companion
might substitute in-store information sources, including salespeople, with the companion’s suggestions. A somewhat different type of risk-reduction strategy is for the consumer to set
a larger budget for the gift. For example, Vincent and Zikmund
(1975) found that respondents bought more expensive items
when they were intended as a wedding present than when
purchased for personal use. Interestingly, while social risk
In-Store Information Search Strategies for a Christmas Gift
might be reduced by setting a higher budget, financial risk
simultaneously increases due to the higher cost.
Another factor affecting the perceived risk of a gift purchase
is the importance of the giver-recipient relationship. Clearly,
the more important the relationship is, the greater the consequences of a poor decision will seem. Of the few studies that
have investigated time invested for gift shopping (e.g., Ryans,
1977; Heeler, Francis, Okechuku, and Reid, 1979), it appears
that gifts to more distant people involve less effort for the
purchaser, although the evidence is circumstantial. On a related note, Sprott and Miyazaki (1995) found that the difficulty
of a gift recipient affected the extent of search, such that more
difficult recipients required greater amounts of gift search.
As previously mentioned, many consumers will typically
have an a priori gift idea prior to entering a store. This was
confirmed by Banks (1979) wherein it was reported that most
gift purchases were planned prior to shopping in the store.
Furthermore, in many instances, search was extremely limited
in that gifts were purchased after visiting only one store. Thus,
in such a situation, it is essential that brand selection for the
product class be sufficient, and additionally that in-store information be adequate enough to distinguish the brands. Thus,
while having a greater brand selection offering in a given store
reduces interstore search (i.e., fewer stores might be visited),
it is likely to increase the search within that particular store.
Finally, of all of the situational variables relevant to the
current discussion, none is as pervasive as the time pressure
that most Christmas shoppers typically experience. Given most
humans’ tendency to procrastinate, it is not surprising that
much of Christmas shopping is conducted under considerable
time duress. This ordinarily affects not only the extent of
search but also the choice of information sources (e.g., internal
memory, friends, in-store sources). The general finding has
been that an increase in time pressure yields a decrease in
information search (cf., Beatty and Smith, 1987; Sprott and
Miyazaki, 1995).
Personal Variables
Much of the research that has looked at the effects of personality traits and/or lifestyle characteristics on search behavior was
not conducted in the specific context of gift giving. In one of
the earliest such studies, Rogers (1962) found that innovators
engage in greater information search, including in-store sources.
More recently, Horton (1979) and Locander and Hermann
(1979) have demonstrated that consumers who view themselves
as bargain hunters conduct more in-store search. On the other
hand, those who were not brand loyal and were more favorable
towards generic products engage in a lesser search of in-store
information. Finally, Schaninger and Sciglimpaglia (1981) investigated the relationship between cognitive personality traits
and information acquisition. They concluded that individuals
having higher self-esteem examined a greater amount of information prior to making a final choice.
The paucity of research that has looked at the effects of
J Busn Res
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115
personality traits or lifestyle characteristics on gift-giving behavior is somewhat surprising. In one of the few studies to have
addressed this issue, Otnes (1990) uncovered three relevant
psychographic variables: (1) attitude toward or love of shopping (in the current context, this can be extended to love of
Christmas shopping), (2) tendency to use gifts for either identity formation or social bonding, and (3) attitude toward the
riskiness of gift giving.
Demographic Variables
The relationship between demographic variables and search
behavior has been addressed by several researchers. In Schaninger and Sciglimpaglia’s (Schaninger and Sciglimpaglia,
1981) study, age was negatively related to the extent of search.
Additionally, younger and more educated housewives who
were earlier in the family life cycle and of higher social class
examined more information. Recall that in her study, Otnes
(1990) uncovered three clusters of information searchers. The
respondent’s family size, age, and education level were found
to be significant discriminators of the three clusters. Incidentally, her results contradicted those of Schaninger and Sciglimpaglia vis-a`-vis the effects of age on the extent of search.
While demographic variables, such as age, have yielded
mixed results, one of the most robust findings is the differential
effect of gender on the gift-giving ritual. Overwhelmingly, it
has been shown that women are much more involved in
Christmas gift shopping (Caplow, 1982; Cheal, 1987; Sherry
and McGrath, 1989; Fischer and Arnold, 1990; Rucker et al.,
1991). Of interest to the present study are gender differences
specifically pertaining to the use of in-store information sources
while gift shopping, a topic that has been addressed rarely in
the literature.
The Case for Including Cultural Variables
As previously mentioned, gift giving appears in all societies
even though the rituals and practices vary across cultures. The
motivations for providing a gift are context dependent, and
they include altruism, economic concerns, obligation, social
exchange, and communication (cf., Wolfinbarger, 1990). Trivers (1971) argued that reciprocal altruism (a combination of
obligation and altruism) is an evolved trait that is found in
all cultures. In the current context of the Christmas gift-giving
ritual, the predominant motivation is a sense of obligation and/
or adherence to a cultural norm. Goodwin, Smith, and Spiggle
(1990) defined two types of obligations, namely, reciprocity
and ritual, both being integral to the Christmas gift-giving ritual.
Much of the research on gift giving stems from the anthropological tradition whereby the focus has been on investigating
such behavior within the context of tribal and primitive societies. As such, while anthropologists have looked at gift-giving
practices of numerous cultures, few if any have attempted to
specifically investigate cross-cultural differences along that
behavior. Within the consumer behavior tradition, there also
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appears to be a dearth of relevant research, as evidenced by
the ensuing quotes:
No one seems to have conducted cross-cultural studies of
this phenomenon (Jolibert and Fernandez-Moreno, 1983,
p. 191).
The absence of any comparative or cross-national study of
gift giving is part of a more wide-spread circumstance
(Jolibert and Fernandez-Moreno, 1983, p. 192).
The study of gift giving cross-culturally is still in its infancy
. . ., but offers rich avenues of additional inquiry (Beatty,
Kahle, and Homer, 1991, p. 150).
Jolibert and Fernandez-Moreno (1983) compared French and
Mexican Christmas gift-giving practices. The authors conclude
that the most challenging endeavor in this area of inquiry is
to identify the specific cultural traits and traditions that generate such cross-cultural differences (p. 196). Several researchers
have accordingly pursued such a strategy. Belk (1984) argued
that gift giving would vary across cultures based on the manner
by which an individual’s self-concept was defined. Green and
Alden (1988) compared American and Japanese gift-giving practices and found considerable differences across all stages of the
process. The differential need for group affiliation between the
two cultures was one of the traits used to explain the obtained
results. Beatty, Kahle, and Homer (1991) investigated the
frequency of gift giving and the exertion of effort in selecting
a gift in the American and the Far East cultures. The authors
found that, irrespective of culture, personal values (e.g., warm
relationships with others versus fun and excitement in life)
were a good predictor of the latter two gift-giving behaviors.
In summary, while there does appear to be an increased
interest in the separate areas of prepurchase gift search and
cross-cultural differences in gift giving, little work has investigated the overlapping of the two fields, namely cross-cultural
differences in the prepurchase gift search. The current work
attempts to address this paucity, by specifically looking at
French and English Canadian differences in terms of the latter
behavior. Prior to positing the hypotheses and research objectives, we provide a brief overview of the literature that has
addressed Franco and Anglo-Canadian differences in several
consumer-related domains.
French–English Canadian
Consumption Differences
Of the 7.3 million people in Quebec (1995 census estimate),
the two dominant cultures are the French and English Canadian ones comprising 80 and 6.3% of the population, respectively. Thus, in addition to its theoretical importance, understanding Franco-Anglo consumption differences has clear
pragmatic implications.
Differences between French and English-Canadian consumers arise for more reasons than solely linguistic ones
(Saint-Jacques and Mallen, 1981). Several studies have shown
M. Laroche et al.
that there exists significant consumption differences between
the members of the two cultures. Tamilia (1978) found that
in an advertising context, Francophones react more to the
source of the ad (e.g., celebrity endorser) whereas Anglophones are more reactive to a message’s content. Additionally, Francophones are more introspective, emotional, and
humanistic and less pragmatic and materialistic than their
Anglophone counterparts (He´on, 1990). The former tend to
associate price with value, are more willing to pay higher
prices for convenience and premium brands, and are more
brand loyal (Vary, 1992). Greater brand loyalty might typically
lead to reduced information search prior to a purchase, a
result confirmed by Muller and Bolger (1985) in the context
of a car purchase. Hui, Joy, Kim, and Laroche (1993) found
that, among other things, Anglophones were less concerned
for children, were less innovative, had less opinion leadership,
and were less fashion conscious. On the other hand, they
demonstrated greater price consciousness, had a higher liking
for use of credit, and displayed greater brand loyalty (contradicting earlier work, e.g., Mallen, 1977).
Scholars have attempted to understand the factors that
might explicate the consumption differences between the
members of the two cultures. Early work by Lefranc¸ois and
Chatel (1967) proposed that such differences were due to
socioeconomic factors, namely, that the traditionally lower
socioeconomic status of the Francophones translated into corresponding consumption differences. However, several researchers have since disproved the socioeconomic hypothesis
(Palda, 1967; Thomas, 1975; Schaninger, Bourgeois, and Buss,
1985; Chebat, Laroche, and Malette, 1988; Joy, Kim, and
Laroche, 1991). He´nault (1971) argued that there exist eight
cultural traits by which the two cultures differ. Of the most
relevant to the current work are that the French are more
individualistic, less conformist, less pragmatic, have a higher
propensity to spend, and are more likely to be financed as
opposed to being the financer. Mallen (1977) proposed that
the consumption differences were due to three general differences in traits: (1) the “sensate” trait involving the five senses,
namely the French are more likely to react to appeals involving
the senses; (2) the “conservative” trait that relates to low risktaking behavior and strong family orientation, for example,
being more risk-averse; and (3) the “nonprice cognitive” trait,
which is an outcome of the other two traits. In other words,
if the French like a product due to some sensate trait, they will
repurchase it irrespective of its price (within some acceptable
range of prices). Bouchard (1983) proposed that the French
have six common specific cultural and historical roots that
translate into 36 responsive chords (i.e., six chords per root).
Of most relevance to the current article are the following seven
chords: shrewdness, superconsumerism, eccentric taste, herd
mentality, conservatism, joie de vivre, and individualism.
Clearly, the French and English Canadians possess different
cultural traits, customs, and traditions subsequently yielding
differences in their consumer-related behaviors. Of present
In-Store Information Search Strategies for a Christmas Gift
concern is the identification of those cultural traits that should
moderate prepurchase gift search. For example, given that the
French have a stronger religious background, they might place
greater importance on the Christmas season. Accordingly, this
would increase their task involvement when purchasing a
Christmas gift. Similarly, given the nonprice cognitive trait of
the French, price-related factors might be less relevant when
shopping for a gift.
Objectives of the Current Research
The study has three key objectives. First, it will gauge whether
the extent of search conducted prior to a gift purchase is
moderated by culture. Several cross-cultural psychologists
have proposed that a key cultural value is the “reflective versus
action-oriented” continuum. Clearly, this trait might have an
effect on the amount of deliberation that members of a particular culture engage in prior to committing to a final decision.
For example, Punnett (1995) compared Chinese and American college students along several key cultural dimensions
including “impulsivity”, a trait that is likely related to the
above continuum. Positing an a priori hypothesis in the current context is very difficult given that many of the cultural
differences between the two cultures would yield contradictory predictions regarding the extent of search. For example,
the greater brand loyalty typically exhibited by the French
would imply a decrease in search while their Catholic root
might yield greater task involvement in the Christmas giftgiving ritual thus resulting in an increase in search.
The second objective of the study is to develop comprehensive models of the gift-giving search process for each of the
two cultures and subsequently to explore whether significant
cross-cultural differences exist in the results obtained. A myriad of moderators of search (situational, personal, and demographic variables) will be integrated into general regression
models. With the exception of Laroche, Kim, Saad, and
Browne (1997), no other study has attempted to include such
a large set of variables within one model of search. As such,
the theoretical implications of the endeavor appear fruitful.
Thirdly, we wish to test directional hypotheses between the
moderators of search and the extent of search. For example,
one might posit a positive relationship between the cost a gift
and the extent of search. Accordingly, should the regression
model yield a significant coefficient for the latter moderator
(i.e., cost of gift), the expectation would be that its sign should
be positive. This exercise would allow us to fully gauge the
explanatory power of the models.
Research Methodology
Survey Administration
In terms of timing, the survey was conducted soon after the
Christmas season was over, to ensure that the clothing gift
purchase experience was still fresh in the respondent’s mem-
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117
ory. The data came from a sample of residents of a major
metropolitan area, by using the area sampling method. The
data collection was confined to a selected number of census
tracts in the residential areas of the city. Interviewers approached households on randomly selected streets in the chosen census tracts, and a questionnaire was left with the consenting respondent to be completed and mailed back (postagepaid) at his or her convenience. An additional procedure also
was employed by randomly approaching individuals in the
hallways of a large shopping mall and leaving with the consenting respondent a questionnaire to be mailed at his/her
convenience.
Equal numbers of English and French respondents were
sought. Self-identification was used to categorize the respondents into the two groups. A total of 1,026 questionnaires
were distributed using the procedures described above, 493
in English and 533 in French. It was deemed that this number
would yield a sufficient response. A total of 368 usable questionnaires were returned, yielding an overall return rate of
36%. Of these, 155 were from English respondents and 213
from French respondents, a response rate of 31 and 40%,
respectively. As can be seen in Table 1, the majority of respondents are female and are married or its equivalent, and they
tend to possess above average education and family income.
Questionnaire
The questionnaire was divided into three parts: situational,
personal, and demographic variables. Only the variables pertinent to the present analysis will be discussed here.
Part I of the questionnaire contained several questions using
a 10-point Likert scale anchored at 1 5 strongly disagree
and 10 5 strongly agree, designed to measure consumers’
purchase of a specific Christmas gift, as well as their use of instore information sources for the same purchase. Respondents
were requested to think of a particular gift of clothing that
they had actually purchased for Christmas. As previously mentioned, clothing was selected because a review of the literature
indicated that clothing was the most popular type of gift
purchased, particularly at Christmas (Belk, 1979; Caplow,
1982). First, 33 questions measured purchase-specific situational variables identified in the literature review (see Table
2), while 10 questions measured actual in-store information
search conducted by the respondent for the specific Christmas
gift purchase (the dependent variables, see Table 3). Part I
also contained one question as to for whom the gift was
intended (coded as 1 5 primary relation, e.g., father; 2 5
secondary relation, e.g., sister or aunt; 3 5 tertiary relation,
e.g., cousin; 4 5 nonrelation), and one question measuring
availability of information in the store (“Everything I needed
to know about the clothing item was available in the store”).
Part II contained 56 questions designed to measure the
personal characteristics of the respondents, by using a 10point Likert-type scale anchored at 1 5 strongly disagree and
10 5 strongly agree. These questions captured various aspects
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M. Laroche et al.
Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of the Sample
English (%)
Gender (p 5 0.09)
Male
18.0
Female
82.0
Marital status (p , 0.01)
Single
25.7
Separated/divorced
10.1
Married or equivalent
64.2
Household income (p , 0.01)
Less than $30,000
16.7
$30,000–$39,999
12.0
$40,000–$49,999
16.7
$50,000–$59,999
17.3
$60,000–$69,999
5.3
Over $70,000
32.0
Average age of youngest child
living at home (p 5 0.29) (years)
11.0
Age (p 5 0.02)
Less than 30
22.0
30–39
19.3
40–49
32.0
50–59
19.3
Over 60
7.3
Family size (p 5 0.17)
Two or less
25.9
Three
15.0
Four
37.4
Five or more
21.8
Education (p 5 0.10)
(highest level attained)
High school or less
22.0
College
30.0
University
48.0
French (%)
25.6
74.4
12.8
7.4
79.8
4.9
5.3
7.8
9.7
21.4
51.0
9.9
18.1
34.3
30.3
12.3
4.9
24.0
22.0
39.5
14.5
16.2
24.5
59.3
of an individual’s tastes, preferences, or attitudes that could
be related to that person’s Christmas shopping behavior (see
Table 4). Most of these questions were adapted from the
lifestyle instrument used by Wells and Tigert (1971). Other
questions relating specifically to Christmas or gift shopping
and attitude toward time pressure were either developed anew
or adapted from the instrument used by Otnes (1990).
Part III of the questionnaire contained a number of questions related to culture. The first set of questions involved
evaluating the usage frequency of English and French across
11 activities. These have been shown by Kim, Laroche, and
Lee (1989) to be a reliable single measure of acculturation.
Four questions were used to measure identification (I consider
myself to be English/French Canadian …; My parents are
English/French Canadians …). Three questions were related
to religion: I consider myself to be a strong Protestant/Catholic
believer, I had a strong Protestant/Catholic childhood upbringing, Protestant/Catholic beliefs are an important part of
my life. All these questions were on a 10-point Likert-type
scale anchored at 1 5 strongly disagree, 10 5 strongly agree.
Since Christmas is a religious holiday, we added this variable
to see if the strength of religious beliefs is a motivating factor in
in-store information search. The last part of the questionnaire
included standard questions about the respondent’s gender,
age, marital status, household income, family size, age of the
youngest child at home, and education, among others. The
questionnaire was first written in English, then translated into
French, except for the questions taken from Kim, Laroche,
and Lee (1989) and Hui, Joy, Kim, and Laroche (1993), which
were already available in French. The translation was verified
by two French-speaking people.
Data Preparation
The hypothesized relationships between usage of in-store information sources and the situational, personal, and demographic variables were examined using multiple regression
analyses. However, prior to running the regression analyses,
some of the data was factor analyzed to develop measures of
the various constructs, test their reliability, and recode them.
From Part I, all of the situational questions together with
the three questions relating to time pressure also were factor
analyzed using Varimax rotation. The solution produced 10
factors explaining 64.0% of the variance, the first eight exhibiting good reliabilities, and the last two marginal reliabilities,
especially for the French subsample. Table 2 presents the
factor loadings and Cronbach’s alphas. While not shown in
Table 2, recall that Part I contained two additional constructs
(“availability of information” and “close relationship”), which
were each measured by a single item.
Second, the 10 questions in Part I pertaining to in-store
information search effort were factor analyzed using Varimax
rotation. The solution produced three factors explaining
67.7% of the variance: in-store search for general information,
in-store search for specific information, and information accessed from a salesclerk. The first two constructs involved
information search that can be conducted alone by the giver,
with no interaction with other people, whereas the third factor
requires personal interaction with the salesclerks. Table 3
presents the factor loadings and Cronbach’s alphas.
Finally, from Part II of the questionnaire, all the questions
measuring personal characteristics were factor analyzed using
Varimax rotation. The solution produced eight factors all exhibiting good reliabilities, and collectively they explained
62.1% of the variance. Table 4 presents the factor loadings
and the Cronbach’s alphas.
A reliability analysis was also performed on the culturerelated measures. The 12 items measuring acculturation had
Cronbach’s alphas of 0.80 and 0.89 for the English and French
samples. The four items measuring identity had Cronbach’s
alphas of 0.69 and 0.62, respectively. The three items measuring religious beliefs and upbringing had Cronbach’s alphas of
0.93 and 0.89. Religious beliefs and religious upbringing were
related to the religion (Protestant or Catholic) declared by the
respondent. For the multiple regression analyses, the mean
of items in each factor was used as the construct measure.
In-Store Information Search Strategies for a Christmas Gift
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119
Table 2. Factors for Situational Variables
Description
Time pressure
Costly gift
Risky gift
Strict budget
Predetermined gift
selection
Difficult recipient
List
Helpful companion
Good selection
Familiarity
Item
When I am Christmas shopping, I am always pressed for time
I always feel rushed while Christmas shopping
There is never enough time to get all of the Christmas shopping done
This clothing gift was very expensive
The budget for this gift of clothing was higher than I usually set for other Christmas
gifts
The cost of the actual gift exceeded my budget for it
I would feel really bad if I bought someone a gift that they did not like
I often worry about what can happen if I buy a Christmas gift for someone and they
do not like it
I will not like the consequences if the recipient does not like the clothing gift
It is important that I get just the right gift for this recipient
I often feel that I run a high risk of buying someone a Christmas gift they will not
like
I had a definite budget in mind before shopping for this clothing gift
Money was no object for this particular clothing gift (reversed)
I was reluctant to exceed my budget for this gift
Price is the last thing I consider when I am buying a gift (reversed)
If an item is too expensive, I will not buy it as a gift
I always stick to my budget when buying gifts for others
I had everything decided about the garment before I got to the store
I knew exactly what to buy for this recipient
I had no idea what I was going to get as a gift for this person before I started shopping
(reversed)
It is especially risky to buy gifts for this particular recipient
This recipient is easy to buy gifts for (reversed)
The recipient gave me a list to choose from
I bought this item from a list given to me by the receipient
While I was shopping in the store, I consulted with a friend in choosing the clothing
gift
I was shopping with someone else who helped me in choosing this clothing gift
It was very easy to shop around and compare other similar clothing items
There were many brands to choose from once I had decided what to buy for this
recipient
There was a large selection of gifts I could have bought for this recipient
I am not very familiar with this type of clothing (reversed)
I have bought this type of clothing often in the past
Factor
Loading
Cronbach
Alpha (E/F)
0.8637
0.8661
0.7698
0.8347
0.8163
0.7670/0.8354
0.8077
0.8454
0.8188
0.7476/0.7902
0.6159/0.6222
0.6615
0.5508
0.3928
0.7703
0.7658
0.6998
0.6948
0.6034
0.4927
0.7902
0.7572
0.7453
0.7765
0.7312
0.9259
0.9000
0.9098
0.7758/0.7714
0.6413/0.7382
0.6505/0.5639
0.9259/0.8465
0.8261/0.7984
0.8976
0.7324
0.6511
0.5983/0.3775
0.5378
0.8164
0.6182
0.4920/0.3550
Factor
Loading
Cronbach
Alpha (E/F)
I looked at all the items in the display area where I bought the gift
I walked around the store looking at the display of all merchandise
I checked all the prices very carefully
I spent a lot of time comparing the brands or clothing items in the store
I read all the signs around the display area
I very carefully read the manufacturer’s label
I very carefully examined the packaging information
I tried to get as much information as possible in the store about this
clothing item
0.8464
0.8153
0.7305
0.6557
0.5396
0.8880
0.8161
0.6198
0.8335/0.8174
I received a lot of help from the salesclerk
The salesclerks in the store were readily available if I needed any help
0.8566
0.7768
0.6805/0.5145
Table 3. Factors for In-Store Information Search Effort
Description
Impersonal sources
General information search
Specific information search
Personal source
Salesclerk help
Item
0.7453/0.7918
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M. Laroche et al.
Table 4. Factors for Personal Characteristics
Description
Traditional Christmas lover
Bargain hunter
Influencer
Leader
Thoughtful giver
Generics buyer
Fashion conscious
Identity shaper
Item
I love the Christmas season
I look forward to Christmas every year
I am strongly attached to all the Christmas traditions
Christmas is my favorite time of year
When it comes to Christmas, I follow all the traditional customs of the
season
I love to Christmas shop
It is important to get into the Christmas spirit by participating in the season’s
traditional activities
Christmas shopping is one of my least favorite activities (reversed)
In general I shop a lot for “specials” or discounts
I am willing to spend more time shopping in order to find bargains
A person can save a lot of money by shopping around for bargains
Prior to shopping, I check all the newspapers and magazines for gift ideas
and prices
I often try new brands before my friends and neighbors do
When I see a new brand on the shelf I often buy it
I sometimes influence what my friends buy
People come to me more often than I go to them for information on brands
I like to try new and different things
My friends and/or neighbors often come to me for advice
I think I possess more self-confidence than most people
I like to be considered a leader
I am more independent than most people
I conduct a lot of research about what the person would enjoy before I go
shopping at Christmas
I watch carefully the people I am buying gifts for to see what they would
really like
It is important to get gifts that people will enjoy
I like to put a lot of thought into the gifts I buy
Generics are often as good as advertised brands
Generics are not much different from name brands except for the packaging
Generic products provide good value for what I pay
I usually have one or more outfits that are of the latest style
An important part of my life and activities is dressing smartly
When I must choose between dressing for fashion or for comfort, I choose
the former
I often give Christmas gifts that help to shape the recipient’s personality
I often give Christmas presents to people in order to reinforce some aspect
of ther identity
Finally, demographic variables measured on nominal scales
were converted to dummy variables (gender: female 5 1,
male 5 0); or interval variables (marital status was converted
to: single, separated/divorced/widow, and married/living together). In summary, reliable and significant factors were
found for the personal, situational, and culture-related variables and for in-store information search.
Results
The data was analyzed for relationships between the three
groups of independent variables (personal, situational, and
demographic) and the three dependent variables related to instore information search and effort. Separate stepwise multiple
Factor
Loading
Cronbach
Alpha (E/F)
0.8852
0.8803
0.8325
0.8432
0.7585
0.8989/0.9225
0.7516
0.6516
0.6354
0.8641
0.8091
0.6285
0.5207
0.6864
0.6507
0.6180
0.6085
0.5825
0.4215
0.8244
0.7549
0.7097
0.7010
0.7211/0.7056
0.8054/0.7155
0.8039/0.6985
0.7133/0.6824
0.7199
0.6681
0.5327
0.8532
0.7990
0.7941
0.7475
0.7053
0.6960
0.8409
0.7353
0.8955/0.6725
0.7128/0.5901
0.5886/0.7191
regression analyses were run for each dependent variable and
for each subgroup1. The results for each of the three regression
analyses are summarized in Table 5 for the English subgroup
and in Table 6 for the French subgroup.
Objective 1: Is Extent of Search
Moderated by Culture?
An ANCOVA analysis (controlling for education, income, gender, marital status, age) was conducted for each of the three
search indices to determine whether belonging to a given
1
Twelve respondents were dropped (five and seven from the English and
French samples, respectively) following an analysis of outliers.
In-Store Information Search Strategies for a Christmas Gift
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Table 5. Results of the Regression Analyses: English Subsample
Dependent Variable
General information search
Constant
F value:
Specific information search
Constant
F value:
Salesclerk help
Independent Variables
Coefficient
t
Group R2
Marginal
Contribution
Thoughtful giver
Traditional Christmas lover
Fashion conscious
Strict budget
Costly gift
Predetermined gift selection
Good selection
Gender
Age of youngest child living at home
Martial status
0.3398
0.1382
20.1045
0.4821
0.2183
20.1514
0.1226
1.2065
0.0463
20.2063
20.5612
9.82a
20.2221
0.5008
20.2494
0.1999
0.2984
0.1681
0.1083
20.3481
0.5082
0.6565
0.0495
0.0913
26.2576
5.99a
20.2209
20.1880
0.1478
0.1686
0.4744
0.2371
0.2503
20.3631
20.1415
20.1435
20.3380
0.2572
0.2461
2.3295
6.33a
3.169a
1.787b
21.511
5.850a
3.241a
22.090b
1.638
2.857a
2.196b
21.570c
20.454
Adjusted R2
22.050b
3.747a
22.893a
2.213b
3.083a
2.121b
1.823b
21.896b
3.230a
3.320a
1.941b
1.576c
23.939a
Adjusted R2
22.932a
21.472c
21.841b
2.107b
6.400a
3.091a
2.345b
22.016b
21.759b
21.538c
22.343b
1.508c
1.544c
1.361
Adjusted R2
0.0486
0.0707
0.2371
0.2270
0.1059
0.0592
0.3719
0.0645
0.0820
0.0762
0.0808
0.1359
0.1630
0.3032
0.0458
0.0538
0.2704
0.3054
0.0000
0.0312
Leader
Thoughtful giver
Identity shaper
Fashion conscious
Strict budget
Costly gift
Helpful companion
Close relationship
Age
Education
Age of youngest chld living at home
Religion
Generics buyer
Thoughtful giver
Fashion conscious
Identity shaper
Availability of information
Costly gift
Risky gift
Close relationship
Predetermined gift selection
Strict budget
Size of family
Education
Marital status
Constant
F value:
0.3461
The Group adjusted R2 is obtained when only the group of variables (personal, situational, demographics) is regressed on the dependent variables. The marginal contribution is the
loss of adjusted R2 obtained when the group of variables is removed from the regression.
a
Significant at p , 0.01 (one-way).
b
Significant at p , 0.05 (one-way).
c
Significant at p , 0.10 (one-way).
culture influenced one’s extent of prepurchase gift search. The
sole significant difference was for general information whereby
the English engaged in greater search (p , 0.02).
In the multicultural context of the Quebec market where
many cultural groups are in continuous contact with one
another, it is important that cross-cultural studies incorporate
acculturation as a key covariate. The latter refers to the degree
to which the values and norms of an individual or a cultural
group are adopted by those of another group. On the other
hand, one’s ethnic identification, is a de facto characteristic,
which will be impossible to compromise regardless of the
extent and length of contact with the majority cultural group.
Language(s) used by minority group members, especially in
the choice of mass media such as radio, television, and newspaper, is one aspect that is partly determined by the length
and extent of their contact with the majority group (Kim,
Laroche, and Lee, 1989). Identification and language acculturation were therefore used in this article to measure culture
change. Clearly, highly acculturated individuals might have
weakened possible effects by decreasing the a priori differences
122
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M. Laroche et al.
Table 6. Results of the Regression Analyses: French Subsample
Dependent Variable
General information search
Specific information search
Salesclerk help
Marginal
Contribution
Independent Variables
Coefficient
t
Group R2
Thoughtful giver
Bargain hunter
Generics buyer
Influencer
Strict budget
Difficult recipient
Time pressure
Religion
Constant
F value:
Thoughtful giver
Bargain hunter
Strict budget
Predetermined gift selection
Good selection
Religion
Education
Constant
F value:
Generics buyer
Fashion conscious
Availability of information
Costly gift
Time pressure
Helpful companion
Gender
Acculturation
Education
Age of youngest child living at home
Size of family
Constant
F value:
0.2628
0.1646
20.1488
0.1534
0.5004
20.1770
20.0888
0.0944
0.2631
14.41a
0.3025
0.2137
0.3433
0.2077
0.2177
0.1700
20.2792
23.4050
13.56a
20.2107
0.1203
0.4311
0.3114
0.1033
20.0723
20.9066
20.2205
0.2683
0.0330
20.2025
1.4008
11.23a
2.753a
2.021b
22.071b
1.702b
6.970a
22.893a
1.608c
1.905b
0.274
Adjusted R2
2.547a
2.174b
3.906a
2.889a
2.462a
2.750a
1.596c
22.565a
Adusted R2
22.993a
1.632c
7.202a
5.764a
1.795b
21.538c
22.716a
22.527a
1.830b
1.701b
21.394c
1.167
Adjusted R2
0.1659
0.0739
0.2427
0.1738
0.0239
0.0087
0.3436
0.1614
20.0476
0.1977
0.1042
0.0800
0.0299
0.3002
0.0210
0.0307
0.2715
0.2681
0.0615
0.0592
0.3554
The group adjusted R2 is obtained when only the group of variables (personal, situational, demographics) is regressed on the dependent variables. The marginal contribution is the
loss of adjusted R2 obtained when the group of variables is removed from the regression.
a
Significant at p , 0.01 (one-way).
b
Significant at p , 0.05 (one-way).
c
Significant at p , 0.10 (one-way).
between the two cultures. Thus, following the temporary removal of the highly acculturated individuals from both samples, the ANCOVA analysis was repeated. In this case, the
sole significant difference was for salesclerk help, whereby the
French engaged in greater search (p , 0.01). This accords
with the results of He´on (1990), namely that the French are
more humanistic, which in this case translates into greater
human interaction. Table 7 displays the search results for both
sets of samples (i.e., the complete samples and those wherein
the highly acculturated individuals were removed2).
Objective 2: Explore Comprehensive Models
of Search and Compare Between the Two Cultures
Both Tables 5 and 6 display the results of three regression
equations, namely one for each of the three search indices.
2
For this analysis, the removal of the highly acculturated individuals
from both samples yielded 78 “strong” English individuals and 75 “strong”
French respondents, respectively.
Looking at the adjusted R2 values allows one to gauge the
data fit to each of the regression models. For the English
sample, these were 0.3719, 0.3032, and 0.3461 for general,
specific, and salesclerk information, respectively. On the other
hand, for the French sample, the corresponding adjusted R2
values were 0.3436, 0.3002, and 0.3554. Thus, it appears
that the regression models yielded equally good fits not only
when comparing across cultures but also across search indices.
The last two columns in Tables 5 and 6 report the group
adjusted R2 and the marginal contribution scores. The former
is obtained when only the group of variables (personal, situational, demographics) is regressed on the dependent variables.
The marginal contribution is the loss of adjusted R2 obtained
when the group of variables is removed from the regression.
Based on the group R2 and marginal contribution scores, it
appears that the situational variables were the most important
ones to both samples, an intuitive result given the inherent
situational nature of the Christmas gift-giving season.
The significant coefficients from Tables 5 and 6 are summa-
In-Store Information Search Strategies for a Christmas Gift
Table 7. Extent of Search for Each of the Three Search Indices
I
Complete data set
General information
Specific information
Salesclerk help
Removal of acculturated
respondents from
both groups
General information
Specific information
Salesclerk help
English
French
p-value
6.48
4.87
5.09
5.80
5.38
5.54
0.012
0.106
0.123
630
5.23
4.69
5.70
5.11
5.78
0.148
0.803
0.009
123
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36 and 26 significant slopes, respectively, suggesting that the
former have a more complex search process. The number of
times that the two cultures yielded a significant slope on the
same search index and with the same directionality (i.e., same
sign) was 10. On the other hand, on only two occasions did
the two cultures yield a significant slope for a given search
index but with opposite directionality. For the 38 remaining
cases (i.e., 62 2 20 2 4), there was a significant coefficient
for only one of the two cultures. Of the latter 38 cases, 14
were from the French sample whereas 24 were from the English sample. A breakdown of the 38 cases across the three
search indices reveals that general, speci