REVISITING EXISTENTIALISM IN DOSTOYEVSKY’S CRIME AND PUNISHMENT THROUGH THE STUDY OF RASKOLNIKOV’S PERSONALITY CHANGES
REVISITING EXISTENTIALISM IN DOSTOYEVSKY’S
CRIME AND PUNISHMENT THROUGH THE STUDY OF
RASKOLNIKOV’S PERSONALITY CHANGES
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By
DAVID BAYU PRAWIRO HERYANA
Student Number: 024214036
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2007
REVISITING EXISTENTIALISM IN DOSTOYEVSKY’S
CRIME AND PUNISHMENT THROUGH THE STUDY OF
RASKOLNIKOV’S PERSONALITY CHANGES
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By
DAVID BAYU PRAWIRO HERYANA
Student Number: 024214036
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2007
Only a life lived for other is a life worthwhile
- Albert Einstein -
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to thank my creator for the freedom that He has given to me. Without freedom I would not be what I am. I wish to thank wholeheartedly my beloved parents, Ko Charles, and Cie Pauline, for their love and support. I apologize for making them wait so long.
I do thank my advisor, Drs. Hirmawan Wijanarka, M.Hum. for spending his time to guide me finishing this thesis. His advice and suggestions give a large contribution in improving my writing. My next gratitude goes to Dewi Widyastuti, S.Pd., M.Hum. for being my co-advisor. I really appreciate her suggestion and criticism that have improved my thesis. Special thanks are addressed to Romo Hary Susanto SJ for a short but inspiring discussion. I would also express my appreciation to all the staff in English Letters Department secretariat. Their great services ease me in accomplishing my study.
I want to give also special thanks to Thoms, Danang, and Sigit for the discussion enriching my knowledge. I would like to say thanks to WW, Leonardo, the couple Cecep-Minthul, Dimas, Parjo, Step, Téh Ria, Ajeng, Cak Diqin, Munyux and all my friends in English Letters 2002. I thank them for the happy or sad memories they have shared with me.
Lastly, I would like to thank everyone who deserves my gratitude. I am sorry that I forgot to name them all. May God bless them.
David Bayu Prawiro Heryana
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE .................................................................................................. i APPROVAL PAGE ........................................................................................ ii ACCEPTANCE PAGE .................................................................................... iii MOTTO PAGE ................................................................................................ iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................ v TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................ vi ABSTRACT .................................................................................................... viii ABSTRAK ...................................................................................................... x CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ..................................................................
1 A. Background of the Study .............................................................
1 B. Problem Formulation ...................................................................
5 C. Objectives of the Study ................................................................
5 D. Definition of Terms ......................................................................
5 CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW..................................................
7 A. Review on Related Studies ...........................................................
7 B. Review on Related Theories ........................................................
10 1. Theory of Character and Characterization ...............................
10 2. Theory on Character Developmen ...........................................
13 3. Theory of Personality Changes ................................................
14 4. The Relation between Literature and Philosophy ....................
16 5. Existentialism and Attempted Definitions ...............................
17 6. Sartrean Existentialism ............................................................
18 C. Theoretical Framework ................................................................
21 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY .............................................................. 23
A. Object of the Study ....................................................................... 23
B. Approach of the Study .................................................................. 24
C. Method of the Study...................................................................... 24
CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS ........................................................................... 27 A. The Character of Raskolnikov before the Murder ......................... 27 B. Raskolnikov’s Personality Changes after the Murder.................... 37 C. Existentialism Reflected in Raskolnikov ...................................... 47 CHAPTER V CONCLUSION ...................................................................... 57 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................... 60
APPENDIX. .................................................................................................... 63
Summary of Dostoyevsky’s Crime and Punishment ................................... 63
ABSTRACT
DAVID BAYU PRAWIRO HERYANA (2007). Revisiting Existentialism in
Dostoyevsky’s Crime and Punishment through the Study of Raskolnikov’s
Personality Changes. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of
Letters, Sanata Dharma University.
In Crime and Punishment Dostoyevsky drowns into the psychological combat that might be undergone by a criminal. Raskolnikov, the major character of the novel, tries to find his existence through his action of murdering an old woman pawnbroker. The murder is based on an assumption that the pawnbroker carries out poverty. Such action can be seen as a free act. A free act can be a manifestation of a man’s freedom. On the contrary, it might also be an antithesis of his freedom. The writer attempts to examine Raskolnikov and his freedom from the point of view of existentialism, mainly existentialism by Jean-Paul Sartre.
This study is led to accomplish three objectives. The first objective is to gain a description of the character Raskolnikov before he commits the murder. The second objective is to see the personality changes he undergoes after the murder. The last objective rises to observe the character from the point of view of existentialism.
In accomplishing the analysis the writer uses library research method. Most of the data needed are collected from several books and essays. Theories on character are employed to answer the first problem. Then, theories on personality changes from the domain of Psychology are essential to examine the personality development that happens to Raskolnikov. Lastly, the writer applies philosophy of existentialism in studying Raskolnikov’s personality journey.
In the beginning of the story Raskolnikov is described as a smart and proud man who lives in poverty. These two contradictory facts make him feel that his life is meaningless. Based on empirical theory of the concept of man, he tries to look for his existence by murdering a pawnbroker. He has an obsession to be an extraordinary man. In fact, Raskolnikov experiences a psychological punishment as the consequence of his act. His pride is slowly falling down. Nonetheless, due to the love given by the people who care for him, he is able to rise up from the agony and repent his sin. The murder done by Raskolnikov is obviously an antithesis of his freedom. He does not realize that he has been enslaved by his own obsession. As an impact, Raskolnikov happens to be in despair because he feels that he has failed. An existential act is reflected precisely in his personality change from being proud to being humble and his will to live.
ABSTRAK
DAVID BAYU PRAWIRO HERYANA (2007). Revisiting Existentialism in
Dostoyevsky’s Crime and Punishment through the Study of Raskolnikov’s
Personality Changes. Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra,
Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Dalam novel Crime and Punishment Dostoyevsky menyelam ke dalam pertarungan psikologis yang mungkin dialami seorang kriminal. Raskolnikov, tokoh utama dalam novel tersebut berusaha menemukan eksistensinya dalam tindakannya membunuh seorang wanita tukang gadai. Pembunuhan ini didasari anggapan bahwa tukang gadai tersebut menyebabkan kemiskinan terus berjalan. Tindakan Raskolnikov ini dapat dilihat sebagai sebuah tindakan bebas. Tindakan bebas dapat menjadi perwujudan dari kebebasan manusia. Di sisi lain, tindakan tersebut juga bisa menjadi pengkhianatan atas kebebasannya. Penulis mencoba melihat tokoh Raskolnikov dan kebebasannya dengan kacamata eksistensialisme, utamanya eksistensialisme Jean-Paul Sartre.
Studi ini diarahkan untuk menjawab tiga permasalahan. Permasalahan pertama ditujukan untuk mendapatkan gambaran tentang karakter Raskolnikov sebelum dia melakukan pembunuhan. Permasalahan kedua adalah untuk melihat perubahan watak yang dialaminya setelah pembunuhan. Permasalahan terakhir muncul guna mencermati karakter Raskolnikov dari sudut pandang eksistensialisme.
Dalam menyelesaikan analisis, penulis menggunakan metode kepustakaan. Sebagian besar data yang diperlukan didapat dari beberapa buku maupun esar- esai. Teori karakter digunakan untuk menjawab permasalahan pertama.
Selanjutnya, teori perubahan watak/kepribadian dari ranah Psikologi berguna untuk mengamati perkembangan watak yang terjadi. Terakhir, penulis menggunakan filsafat eksistensialisme dalam mencermati perjalanan pribadi Raskolnikov.
Pada awal cerita Raskolnikov digambarkan sebagai pria cerdas dan tinggi hati yang hidup dalam kemiskinan. Dua fakta kontradiktif ini membuat ia merasa hidupnya tak bermakna. Dengan dasar teori empiris tentang konsep manusia, ia berusaha mencari eksistensinya dengan membunuh seorang tukang gadai. Ia memiliki obsesi untuk menjadi extraordinary man (kategori manusia yang mempunyai hak untuk melanggar norma-norma lama demi dunia yang lebih baik). Faktanya, Raskolnikov mengalami hukuman psikologis sebagai konsekuensi dari tindakannya. Perlahan-lahan keangkuhannya runtuh hingga ia berniat bunuh diri. Namun, berkat perhatian dari orang-orang yang mencintainya, ia mampu bangkit dari keterpurukan dan bersedia mengakui kesalahannya. Pembunuhan yang dilakukan Raskolnikov jelas merupakan pengkhianatan atas kebebasannya. Secara tidak sadar ia telah diperbudak oleh obsesinya. Sebagai akibat, ia menjadi terpuruk karena merasa gagal. Tindakan eksistensial justru tercermin pada perubahan wataknya dari tinggi hati menjadi rendah hati dan kemauannya untuk terus menjalani kehidupan.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study Freedom may be believed as the most important right possessed by human
being. In the Bible, which some consider as one of the eldest works of literature, the freedom of human being is shown in the beginning part of the Old Testament (Genesis). Eve’s act of eating the fruit of knowledge and Adam’s act of following his companion are clear illustrations of man’s freedom. Although God has forbidden them to eat that fruit, yet God does not prevent their action, which later on is known as man’s original sin. Only then God gives punishment by expelling them from Eden.
The concept of freedom has been developing together with human population and its civilization. The idea of freedom in today’s people’s mind is different from yesterdays. From time to time human being is always trying to gain the most adequate form of freedom. For an individual, as stated by Hary Susanto, SJ in his essay “Memeluk Agama, Menemukan Kebebasan” included in Sesudah
Filsafat, life is a process into a freedom. This process is often defined as
“history”. In this sense, history of human being might be called history of freedom (2006: 301, my own translation).
Unfortunately, freedom is often misinterpreted and abused. Total freedom becomes boundless and oppressing. Some people are unaware of other’s freedom.
History has noted many form of freedom abuse. The world has once witnessed a
2 holocaust done by Nazi to build a new order led by the race of Aryan Superman. It seems that Hitler has successfully spread Nietzsche’s doctrine. By following the idea of Nietzsche’s “Superman”, he has unintentionally raised existentialism movement. The victims of the holocaust (Jews) are then wondering where God is, and questioning why He does not save them as He has done for Israel. They lose something to rely on so that they decide not to rely on anything but themselves. This is the principle of existentialism.
As an anthropological philosophy, existentialism places man, as an individual, as its center. He is free to think and do whatever he wants. In his relationship with others and the universe, he acts as a subject who is free to decide what is true and what is false. This is what we call subjectivity.
Existentialism emphasizes not only freedom to think, but also freedom to act. Existentialists say that man must act individually, and everyone must act differently. It means that human behavior should be original from himself, not by social influences (Rentz, 1995: 296). Still according to Rentz, the society norms are useless. Existential ethics tend to place individual above the law. It is a belief that living human being is a higher value than any abstract idea, even the idea of good (1995: 296).
Speaking of existentialism, we must refer to philosophers such as Heidegger, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, or Sartre. However, it is important to notice that there is a Russian writer whose works are frequently claimed as existential.
He is Fyodor Mikhailovic Dostoyevsky.
3 There is no reason to say that Dostoyevsky is an existentialist. He never claims neither himself as existentialist nor his works as existential writings.
However, through his early work, Notes from the Underground, he may be called the father of existentialism. In Existentialism from Dostoyevsky to Satre, Kaufmann regards that work as a “best overture of existentialism” (1969: 14).
Without disrespecting Dostoyevsky’s other works, this thesis chooses
Crime and Punishment as the object to analyze. While nowadays the world is
facing a super power country doing an invasion to another country, which even kills its own soldier, in the name of democracy and human rights, Dostoyevsky has painted it on a smaller scale more than a hundred years ago. The subject of the novel is a young man named Raskolnikov, who commits a murder for the sake of the others. He considers the crime as a heroic act based on his own theory of “extraordinary man”. The story then focuses on the psychological combat in his mind whether or not he will admit to the police that he is the murderer. Through the psychological combat, Dostoyevsky presents the value of humanity. In the introduction of the English translation version, the translator David Margarshack, writes that the theme of the story, as said by the narrator, is that the man will die not because of the crime he has committed, but because he has destroyed what is best in him and what still entitles him to be called a human being (1958: 11). The philosophical aspect is touched by the theory of “extraordinary man” professed by the main character. This topic becomes the mostly–discussed aspect of the novel. It is understandable since such philosophy then is popularized as “Superman
4 philosophy” by, as mentioned before, a famous German philosopher, Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche.
Nietzsche once said, “Dostoevsky was the only psychologist from whom I had anything to learn” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky). It is interesting to see an existentialist, who is famous with his theory ‘the death of God’, has learnt from a Christian. Dostoyevsky surely is a really great writer. In Raskolnikov, he at his best has gone to the depth of man’s psychological combat.
Peter McDuff points out in his introduction to the Penguin Classic edition that “Dostoyevsky has created a man who is singular yet universal. He (Raskolnikov) is someone with whom we can sympathize, empathize, and pity, even if we cannot relate to his action. He is a character we will remember forever, and whose story will echo throughout history” (http://www.readinggroupguides.com/guides2/crime andpunishment.asp).
It is a bit contradictive to find out that when Boyce Gibson in his book The
Religion of Dostoyevsky discusses Christianity in Crime and Punishment, some
studies suggest that Raskolnikov reflects atheistic existentialism. Unfortunately, those studies on existentialism occasionally get stuck in differing freedom and free act. It is these facts that make the writer choose study on Raskolnikov to analyze how he reflects existentialism. Furthermore, it can be noticed whether or not it is still important to give the theistic-atheistic label to existentialism.
5 B. Problem Formulation These research questions below are formulated in order to guide and limit the subjects that will be discussed.
1. What are the characteristics of Raskolnikov before the murder?
2. How does Raskolnikov’s personality change after the murder?
3. In what way do Raskolnikov’s characteristics express existentialism?
C. Objectives of the Study
The study aims to answer the research questions stated before. Therefore, there will be three objectives of the study. Firstly, this study is trying to figure out the depiction of the Raskolnikov’s characteristics before his crime. Secondly, this study aims to observe how Raskolnikov’s personality changes after he has committed the crime. Lastly, the analysis focuses on seeing how far this main character in the novel represents existentialism.
D. Definition of Terms
Some words will be defined to guide the readers in understanding this thesis. The writer gets definition of the specific terms mostly from books which are considered well - qualified.
1. Existentialism
In his writing “Existentialism is a Humanism”, taken from Existentialism
from Dostoyevsky to Sartre by Walter Kaufmann (1969), Jean-Paul Sartre explains some basic aspects of existentialism. The very starting points of existentialism are “existence precedes essence” and human subjectivity (1969: 290). Those two points mean that men do not have fixed natures that limit or determine their choices, but rather it is their choices that bring whatever nature they have into being. It is a doctrine which makes human life possible and, in addition, declares that every truth and every action implies a human setting and a human subjectivity. As an atheist existentialist, Sartre adds that existentialism is nothing else than an attempt to draw all the consequences of a coherent atheistic position (1969: 310).
2. Personality Change
According to Hurlock (1974: 108), personality change is the personality pattern which can change in some areas and remain persistent in other as well.
Furthermore, the change itself is not synonymous with improvement but can be either for better or worse. Therefore, a personality change of people can be seen as the way to adjust the world.
In Concise Encyclopedia of Psychology (1987: 669), personality changes
7 are defined simply as the changes in personality. Those might be the effect of aging, psychological trauma, education, and altered circumstances. The changes can be seen when human behavior is governed by the lowest unfulfilled need, changes in job, family, or social condition that will alter fundamental motive structure.
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW A. Review of Related Studies Born in 1821, Fyodor Mikhailovic Dostoyevsky is one of the greatest Russian novelists together with Maxim Gorky and Leo Tolstoy. Besides a
novelist, he is also known as a short-story writer, journalist, and editor who is widely regarded as one of the influential writers of modern literature. Although he has spent his study at Military Engineering School, he is more interested in literature. He has been imprisoned for being a member of radical socialist organization. His first post-imprisonment writing, The House of the Dead (1860) is influenced by his experience in a labor camp. His most highly regarded are
Notes from the Underground (1864), Crime and Punishment (1866), The Gambler
(1866), The Idiot (1868), The Devils (1872), and The Brother Karamazov (1880).Among above, Crime and Punishment is the best-known work that is often- discussed by the critics.
The novel tells about a young man who is in bad financial condition; murders an old lady and robs her stuffs. The psychological combat inside his mind becomes the main focus of the whole story. The background of the story is a reflection of Dostoyevsky’s real experience. By the time he started doing this novel, Dostoyevsky was depressed and in a serious financial straits. The important idea of the novel, that is a murderer’s confession, can also be found in
8 Dostoyevsky’s real experience during his prison time in Siberia.
( http://www.readinggroupguides.com/guides2/crime_and_punishment.asp ).
The murderer, namely Raskolnikov, is the main character of the story. He is the character who is mostly-studied by the experts and researchers. In
Masterpiece World of Literature , Frank Northen Magill states that Crime and
Punishment is a novel that expands upon philosophical problem embodied in the
main character, Raskolnikov. He also says that the idea of existentialism appears in Raskolnikov’s consideration whether or not he will commit suicide after the murder as his redemption (1989: 154).
Another critic who also concerns about philosophical issue in the novel is William Barrett. His analysis on Raskolnikov comes into a hypothesis that Dostoyevsky has expressed the idea of “superman philosophy” before Nietzsche.
In Irrational Man: A Study in Existential Philosophy, Barrett says: The hero, Raskolnikov, is the alienated intellectual-alienated at once from the collective body of mankind and from his own being. Hungry and solitary, he spins out of the bowels of his own reason a Nietzchean theory (before Nietzsche) of the superman who through his own superior daring and strength rises above all ordinary moral codes (1962: 137).
Besides the “superman philosophy”, Dostoyevsky is one step forward than Nietzsche in revealing the theory of will to power. Barrett states that “The will to power – the demoniacal will to power – was thus discovered by Dostoyevsky before Nietzsche made it his theme” (1962: 137).
An anonymous essay also focuses on Raskolnikov in its comment on
Crime and Punishment , and Dostoyevsky as the author. The novel is said as
giving irresistible questions: Who among us is innocent? If we all have done a
9 crime, what punishment do we deserve? These questions then lead to an idea, which is written in the introduction of the novel, that:
…true punishment is not the sentence imposed on him by the court of law, but that imposed on him by his own actions: the psychological and spiritual hell he has created for himself; the necessary sentence of isolation from his friends and family; the extreme wavering between wanting to confess his crime, and desperately hoping to get away with it ( http://www.readinggroupguides.com/guides2/crime_and_punishment.asp )
As for Dostoyevsky, the essayist says that he has created a character (Raskolnikov) who can draw various emotions from the readers. “Dostoyevsky has created a man who is singular yet universal. He is someone with whom we can sympathize, empathize, and pity, even if we cannot relate to his actions” (http://www.readinggroupguides.com/guides2/crime_and_punishment.asp). In his closing, the essayist claims Raskolnikov as a character the readers will remember.
Most of the studies that have been done by the critics and researchers are discussing the philosophical and psychological issues drawn from the character Raskolnikov. The discussion on its philosophical issue is about nothing but existentialism. This thesis will neither strongly support nor strictly argue the opinion which says that the main character of the novel, Raskolnikov, shows the idea of existentialism. The writer would like to suggest an alternative perspective on Raskolnikov’s freedom and free act for a better understanding of existentialism. This understanding is reflected from Raskolnikovs’s awareness of himself, people around him, and his freedom.
10 B. Review of Related Theories As the study is dealing with the characters and existentialism, it will be necessary to understand about characters and characterization in literary work and also about existentialism.
1. Theory of Characters and Characterization
According to Murphy (1972: 161-173), there are nine ways that an author can apply to present the characterization of characters in a literary work. They are: a. Personal description
The author can describe a character’s appearance and clothes. The readers will get only a visible look of a character.
b. Characters as seen by another The author can describe a character through the eyes and opinions of other characters. The readers get, as it were, a reflected image.
c. Speech The author describes a character by giving readers an insight into the characteristics through what he says. Here the readers are able to analyze a character from the sentences he uses.
d. Past life The author can provide a clue to events that help to shape a person’s characteristics by giving the readers the character’s past life. This is quite helpful to analyze the motives that a character has when he has a particular characteristic or does something special.
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e. Conversation of others The author can also provide a clue to a person’s characteristics through the conversation of other people and what they say about him. Readers will learn that what others say about a character may reveal some of his characteristics.
f. Reactions The author can describe a person’s characteristics by showing how a character responds to various situations and events. The reaction may give a clue to what characteristics a character has.
g. Direct comment The author may describe a person’s characteristics by directly giving readers comments on the character. This is somehow the best way for the readers to find out any characteristics because they know what exactly the author wants to reveal.
h. Thoughts The author gives readers direct knowledge of what a person is thinking about.
Here the author is able to do what people cannot do in a real life. He can tell readers what different people are thinking of. In a literary work, it is acceptable.
The readers then are in a privileged position; they have a secret listening device plugged in to the inmost thoughts of a character in a novel. i. Mannerism
The author can characterize a character through the mannerisms, habits or idiosyncrasies. It may tell readers something about his characteristics.
Abrams says that Characters are the persons presented in a dramatic or narrative work, who are interpreted by the readers as being endowed with moral and
12 dispositional qualities that are expressed in what they say – the dialogue
- – and by what they do – the action. The grounds in a character’s temperament and moral nature for his speech and actions constitute his motivation (1981: 20).
The quotation means that characters in literary works are understood by readers as persons whose behavior and individuality are observed through their speeches and actions. Later, their dialogues and actions can serve as clues to their motivations for committing some particular events. This is what is expected for the readers to recognize when they read literary works. They do not only enjoy the aesthetic value of the stories but also identify the reasons for any events.
Harvey classifies characters into three categories. The most important is clearly the protagonist. The character has fully established motivation and history and engages readers’ responses more fully and steadily, in a way more complex though not necessarily more vivid than other characters. The character evokes readers’ beliefs, sympathies, and revulsions, exists as an individual case, and demands special consideration. The second is known as the “background” character. This character may almost be completely mysterious, voices rather than individualized characters. It means that the “background” characters are less important and appear simply to support the protagonists (1965: 56).
The last is called intermediate figures, which has at least two kinds of characters. The first, called the Ficelle, is the character who while more fully delineated and individualized than any background character exists in the novel primarily to serve some particular function. Another type of intermediate creation is the Card, the character who is a “character.” Most Cards are not the nominal heroes of the novels that contain them. Few novels make the Card a protagonist,
13 and these few, although they may be very good, do not approach real greatness.
The distinguishing feature of the Card is his relative changelessness, combined with a peculiar kind of freedom. These categories – protagonist, background, Card, Ficelle – are, of course, only approximate.
2. Theory of Character Development
According to Harvey (1965: 56), the protagonists, who are the most important characters in a novel, most of the time change as the story progresses.
They experience the change through many things, including conflicts with which they deal in the story. They are actually what the novel exists for; it exists to reveal them. Forster and Perrine also explain about character development in their books. In Aspects of the Novel and Related Writings, Forster suggests that character development is the metamorphosis of a character starting from the beginning until the end of a story. A character is developing if he is experiencing a change in aspects of disposition, personality, or outlook. He is not the same person who appears at the beginning of the story, which means that he has achieved new characteristics. The changing depends on the events which occur in the story (1974: 54). According to Perrine, the changing of the characters should meet the following three conditions. 1) The changing must be within the possibilities of the characters who make it.
The characters in the story should not change suddenly. The author should present the changing of the characters step by step. The characters must begin the changing with smaller changes.
14 2) The changing must be sufficiently motivated by circumstances in which the character finds himself. The character should have strong motivations or reason in doing their actions. 3) The changing must be allowed sufficient time for a change of its magnitude believably to take place. The characters need enough time for a change
(Perrine, 1974: 71).
3. Theory of Personality Changes
In Personality Development, Hurlock cites Allport’s definition of personality, which explains that personality is “the dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that is determined his characteristics behavior and thought” (1974: 137). Personality is determined by some factors, such as physical, intellectual, emotional, social, sex, education, and family.
Change in personality is divided into three major aspects. However, those three are not in a counter-relationship. Meaning to say, one change of personality may be examined from all aspects. Later on, each aspect will be divided into two antonymous categories. First, the changes are into the better or into the worse. The latter usually happens at puberty and middle age.
Second, the changes are qualitative or quantitative. In qualitative changes, the present traits are reinforced, strengthened, or weakened. An already-present trait, usually an undesirable one is replaced by another trait, usually a desirable one. In quantitative, the changes may produce the impression that the person has
15 changed his personality patterns. This impression is correct in the sense that here have been shifts in the traits.
The last aspect is the period of time. One may experience rapid or slow personality changes. Normally, personality changes are slow and steady. Too rapid changes can be seen as dangerous signals. Rapid personality changes indicate an abnormal condition of the person. It may be caused by a physical illness such as brain injury, or mental illness such as schizophrenia (1974: 120).
Personality changes do not occur on their own harmony. Usually they are the result of multiple revisions in the thoughts feelings related to the person’s concept of self. A change in the self concept will bring out a change in the entire personality pattern. This change is getting more difficult to happen as the person grows older. Changing one’s self-concept requires tremendous self-insight. It means that a person should be able and willing to recognize himself as he actually is, not as he would like to be or as others perceive (1974: 128).
It is very hard for a person to see himself as he actually is. There are at least three obstacles on doing it. They are intellectual, emotion, and environment.
Hurlock (1974: 128-129) mentions some conditions that may facilitate changes in one’s self-concept. He points out what he considers as the most important as follows.
a. The use of introspection to see oneself as one actually is b. As analysis of why one thinks of oneself in a particular way.
c. A critical examination of one’s behavior to see if it creating an unfavorable impression on the others.
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d. An objective comparison of oneself with others to see if one is inferior, superior, or equal.
e. Self-disclosure to those for whom one has respect and confidence as a way of gaining new self-insight.
f. Reading books that emphasize what contributes to success in life.
g. Avoiding trying to model one’s personality after the personality of an ideal.
h. Changing one’s aspiration when they are unrealistically high for one’s potentials. i. Changing from an environment that fosters an unfavorable self-concept or, if this is possible, ignoring the unfavorable aspects of the environment. j. Patient practice in trying to see oneself according to the new self-concept until on becomes accustomed to it, likes it, and accepts it.
4. The Relation between Literature and Philosophy
The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy tells that both philosophy and
literature produce understanding. Philosophy produces understanding of reality/fact while literature produces the understanding of feeling. A literary text may contain philosophical interest and value. The philosopher may identify, examine, and evaluate the philosophical content of the literary text. Literature and philosophy are essentially the same in matters of contents and references, the difference occurs in the physical form. What philosophy expresses in the form of argument is expressed by literature in lyrics, dramatic, or even narrative form (1999: 678).
17 In Literature Considered as Philosophy the French Example, Knight explains the relationship between literature and philosophy by stating, Philosophy and literature have acted upon another in the past, but they never lost their identity in one another. Writers who were not philosophers wrote about philosophy, what they wrote was not in itself philosophy in the strict sense of word (1962: 175). The explanation above wants to say that although an author is not a philosopher, he/she might convey philosophical thoughts or values in his/her work.
In many literary works, the idea of existentialism mostly can be found through the presentation of the characters. The existential fiction frequently strikes through all aspects of morality to get at certain basic truths about man and his behavior (Karl and Leo, 1963: 19). They present an example that is Proust’s “Filial Sentiments of a Parricide” in which the author tells its readers that beneath the seeming joy of life, there is the dying person; and often to seek the truth of things may lead to murder or suicide (1963: 21).
5. Existentialism and Attempted Definitions
Many philosophers such as Nietzsche, Heidegger, Sartre, Kierkegaard, Pascal, and so on, have made interpretation of human existence. Indeed, existentialism is not easily definable. In The New Dictionary of Existentialism (Nauman, 1972: 46), it is stated that existentialism represents a revolt against traditional philosophy. Meaning to say, it denies that truth can be ever synonymous with reason. Existentialism conducts a general examination of existence, its emotions, asserting that existence must be the primary category through which such concepts as essence must be achieved.
18 Troisfontaines in What is Existentialism? (1968: 5) clearly states that existentialism is a movement. He defines the movement as a philosophy of subjectivity, or selfhood, whose fundamental doctrine proclaims man’s freedom in the accomplishment of his destiny, and whose principal method is consequently that of description, or phenomenology.
Existentialism is different from other philosophical movements because it is based on social conditions of human life. Collins states that: Existentialism, perhaps more than other philosophical movements, is usually evaluated on cultural and social grounds. Both its supporters and its opponents point to the general condition of society as an explanation of its appearance and rapid spread in Europe (1952: 1). Even though it is impossible to define existentialism for there are many existentialists with their own concerns, Dr. T. Michel, as cited by Louis Leahy SJ in his book Aliran-Aliran Besar Atheisme, states that all existentialists put their major interest on phatos existentiae, which means individual suffering as a result of an unknowable, chaotic, and seemingly empty universe. Existentialism, then, believes that the suffering individual must create meaning in such empty universe (1985: 58, my own translation). In his effort to create the meaning, a man is anxious to understand his being.
6. Sartrean Existentialism The most emphasized aspect of Sartre’s existentialism is freedom.
Human freedom, as the very first condition of acting and choosing, is one basic theme of existentialism that cannot be separated from the term responsibility. As stated by Sartre in his book Existentialism and Humanism, “thus the first effect of
19 existentialism is that puts every man possesses of himself as he is, and places the entire responsibility for his existence squarely upon his own shoulders” (1960: 29). Sartre’s opinion on freedom is described in his essay about Cartesian freedom in which he provides a discourse based on the thought of a French philosopher, René Descartes, about the freedom of thinking. On one hand, Sartre seems to agree with Descartes on the differentiation of freedom and power. On the other hand, Sartre somehow criticizes Cartesian freedom which he thinks is passive and not productive. Sartre thinks that people should be able to say no to themselves, which is called self-deception.
The self-deception means being deceptive towards any form of essence. A man should not possess essence. With essence, a man cannot be free. According to Sartre, a man is free. To make it more emphasized, a man is freedom. Therefore, it can be stated that freedom is the base of essence. In life, existence precedes essence. It means that “man first of all exists, encounter himself, surges up in the world—and defines himself afterwards” (Sartre, 1969: 290).
The explanation on the essence is the central theme of Sartre’s most famous thought of the phenomenology of Being, which is widely explained in his magnum opus, Being and Nothingness; An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology (1976). He divides Being (Sartre’s term) into two modes, being-in-itself (
ětre en- soi ) and being-for-itself ( ětre pour-soi). The former category includes things like
trees, tables, rocks, and other inanimate object, which have specific roles and functions for particular purposes. A man is different from those things, which makes him included in the latter category, being-for-itself. It is restated that a man
20 has no essence which makes his existence. It is free existence which helps a man form his essence. It then can be concluded that a man is free and completely responsible to himself. This does not mean he is responsible only to his own individual, but rather to all human being, for in doing an action there is a consideration whether or not the other will do the same as he is about to do.
“Existentialism is a Humanism”, this is the title of Sartre’s brief exposition with which he responds the reproaches from the Communists, Christians, and so on. Sartre himself recognizes the difficulty when dealing with the phenomenon. The difficulty occurs because in fact there are two groups of existentialists. On one hand, there is theistic existentialism represented by Jaspers and Gabriel Marcel, while on the other hand there is atheistic existentialism represented by Heidegger and Sartre. Furthermore, Sartre describes his rejection towards God as follows.
…if God does not exist there is at least one being whose existence comes before its essence, a being which exists before it can be defined by any conception of it (1969: 290). Sartre again refuses any form of conception of man. He disagrees that God makes man according to a procedure. By applying an analogy, Sartre states that man is no ready-found function like a paper-knife. This is to say that a man is not created with certain function.
Besides in that brief exposition, Sartre also describes his perspective on God in his essay on Cartesian freedom, compiled in Literary and Philosophical
Essays . Although he frankly declares himself as an atheist, his opinion on
Descartes’ God is very interesting. Sartre excitedly discusses the idea of free God
21 according to Descartes. Sartre considers Descartes’ God as the freest God of all conceptions of God ever suggested by man. This assumption is deducted from Descartes’ statement that “God’s freedom is no more entire than of man and that one is in the image of other” (1970: 193). The creative God is free and not only a subject to principles. Moreover, Sartre says that “He is not disposed by His perfection to decide what is the best; rather, that which He has decided is, as a result of his decision itself, absolutely Good” (1970: 195).
According to Sartre, man is condemned to be free. There are no moral values as the branch of humanity in dealing with freedom and responsibility.
Good and bad values depend on man himself not on the universal values of humanity. If a man sees his action is good, it is so because he chooses and considers his action good. On the contrary, if man sees his action is bad, it is so because he chooses and considers it bad (Sartre, 1960: 47), which is Sartre’s explanation on a man’s subjectivity and truth.
Being free does not mean to be able to do what one wants, but rather to be able to choose what one wishes. This is the nature of freedom as being the very first condition of action. Therefore, a success is not important in freedom. It creates a clear distinction between freedom and power. Man is said to have total freedom even though he has limited power. In the essay on Cartesian freedom, Sartre describes the position of existentialism in facing the phenomenon of power.