STUDENT ACTIVE LEARNING
CONSTRUCTING TEACHING MODELS OF STUDENT ACTIVE
LEARNING FROM CLASSROOM OBSERVATION
Pardjono
Yogyakarta State University
pardjono@uny.ac.id or jpardjono@yahoo.com
Susie Groves
Deakin University
grovesac@deakin, edu.au
John Gough
Deakin University, Austalia
Abstract: This qualitative interpretive case study was carried out employing
four classroom observations in each of twelve Indonesian and four Australian
primary school classrooms, focusing on the continuing attempts to implement
new teaching methods called Student Active Learning (SAL). SAL may be
explained, briefly, as an attempt, within the centralized Indonesian school
system, to implement student-centered constructivist ideas. A study of the
relevant literature indicates that teaching based on constructivist principles is
unlikely to be implemented well in the classroom unless there are highly quality
teachers, readily available manipulative materials, and supportive learning
environment. As Indonesian often lack one or more of these aspects, it seemed
likely that Student Active Learning principles might not be “fully” implemented
in Indonesian primary mathematics classrooms. Thus smaller scale, parallel
study was carried out in Australian schools where there is no policy of Student
Active Learning but where its underlying principles are compatible with the
stated views about learning and teaching. The results of this study suggest that
SAL has been implemented at four levels in Indonesian primary mathematics
classroom, ranging from essentially no implementation to a relatively high level
of implementation, with an even higher level of implementation in three of the
four Australian classrooms observed.
Kata kunci: belajar aktif, case study, primary mathematics
In the 1994 Curriculum the government of Indonesia recommended that
Student Active Learning (abbreviated as SAL) approach should be adopted for
learning and teaching in all schools to improve quality of learning and teaching
practices.
This qualitative interpretive case study was carried out employing four
classroom observations in each of twelve Indonesian and four Australian primary
Pardjono adalah Dosen Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta
school classrooms. These classroom observations were part of research on the
Implementation of Student Active Learning into primary school teaching in Indonesia,
focusing on the continuing attempts to implement new teaching methods called
Student Active Learning (SAL)- an English translation of the Indonesian expression
Cara Belajar Siswa Active (CBSA), which may be literally translated as Methods
Learning Student Active. SAL may be explained, briefly, as an attempt, within the
centralized Indonesian school system, to implement student-centered constructivist
ideas.
It should be noted that this new SAL curriculum was intended to be a
replacement, or extension of previously existing methods which have been
predominantly
teacher-centered,
and
expository
or
didactic.
The
earlier
Developmental Instruction System – or, literally, Procedure Development System
Instructional-formulated measurable instructional objectives, devised appropriate
content and instructional methods, and used standardized written tests and
examination to assess learning outcomes. However, PPSI emphasized skills and
memorized facts.
Another important aspect of SAL is that it is a new national policy that is to be
applied across the curriculum-that is, in most school key learning areas, at both
primary and secondary levels. It should also be noted that the existing highly
centralized system of achievement testing at most levels of Indonesian schooling have
continued through more that a decade of development trialling, and successive stages
of nation-wide implementation of SAL.
Initially, the Government established two SAL projects, namely the Teacher
Education Development Project and the Cianjur Project. Through TEDP project
Student Active Learning was introduced through primary and secondary pre-service
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teacher education. The Cianjur project on the other hand implemented Student Active
Learning through in-service teacher education and a Professional Development
System
which were initiated from the top (at Ministry level) while also being
implemented from the bottom (at sub district level). The aims of the Cianjur project,
which involved teachers, head teachers, and school supervisors were to:
provide children with activities to assist their learning;
encourage cooperative learning in the classroom;
assist learning by providing for problem solving based on direct observation;
work cooperatively within the community to provide for the education of
children;
provide for teachers to meet regularly to exchange ideas; and
provide help and guidance through teacher center. (Moegiadi, Tangyong &
Gardner, 1994: 45).
The TEDP project was considered to have failed to implement Student Active
Learning in classrooms (Raka Joni, 1993). It was assumed that it was because the
institutional and training “distance” from Teacher College and Teacher Training
School to primary schools classroom was too great (Raka Joni, 1992). The lectures of
Institute of Teacher Training and Education who had been trained about Student
Active Learning taught student-teachers, and later some of these would become
“teacher trainers” in the Teacher Training Schools. The Teacher Training School
leavers would then teach in primary schools.
The Cianjur project on the other hand was considered successful, based on the
assessment criteria determined by the Office of Educational Research and
Development, Ministry of Education, because it was regarded as having succeeded in
making the teaching and learning process more active for students (Moegiadi,
Tangyong & Gardner, 1994: 60; Raka Joni 1990: 35). However, its conceptual basis
was considered to be weak (Raka Joni, 1992) because it was presented in an
oversimplified way.
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The Consortium of Education attempted to reformulate philosophical and
psychological bases of SAL to make the theory clearer and to accommodated recent
theories of learning. Raka Joni, one of the Consortium’s members, developed theories
based on two basic principles of the SAL approach: constructivistivism and the tut
wuri handayani principle (Raka Joni, 1993: 57). The first principle argues for
constructivist view of learning – i.e. viewing learning in terms of students
constructing their own meanings from their learning experiences. The second
principle, a Javanese expression tut wuri handayani, is literally translated as “follow
but always be aware”. This principle allows students to follow their own path of
learning as much as possible.
The problems of Student Active Learning implementation, therefore, could
come from the concepts themselves, or the process and strategy used for the
implementation, or from personnel at the delivery level such as teachers, head
teachers and supervisors. Discussing such difficulties in implementation of such
innovation.
The aim of this study was to investigate the implementation of Student Active
Leaning (SAL) in primary mathematics in Indonesian schools. The study focuses on
existing learning and teaching practices in Indonesian primary mathematics
classrooms and examines the extent to which primary teachers have implemented
SAL principles in their mathematics teaching practices.
The implementation of a new approach in the context of existing teaching
practice involves teacher change. Teacher change is always tied to teacher’s
conceptions and beliefs about new learning and teaching approaches and about subject
matter. To assimilate new ideas, teachers need the opportunity to reformulate their
own ideas in order to change their existing conceptions and integrate these new
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concepts of learning and teaching into their teaching of the subjects matter. Thus,
teachers’ beliefs about Student Active Learning, about subject matter influence their
implementation of SAL in classroom practice.
Given that the focus of study involved many factors, it was considered
appropriate to use a qualitative methodology within an interpretive paradigm. Such
paradigms guide research in their practical scientific activities. Guba and Lincoln
(1994: 105), argues that a paradigm, defined as a “basic beliefs system or worldview”,
is primary as it guides disciplined inquiry for investigations in choosing the
appropriate methodology for their research. Case study was employed as strategy of
inquiry in this study and classroom observation and interviews as major methods of
data collection.
Methodology
The study set out to investigate the implementation of Student Active
Learning. This required some picture of students being active, or not, and teachers
promoting active or other kinds of learning. The study also aimed to link classroom
observations data with information about teachers’ backgrounds, and interview-data
about their educational beliefs and declared views about curriculum, learning and the
mathematics curriculum.
Selection of Participants
The sample of Indonesian schools consisted of eight schools, selected from
two regions in Java using non-random selection. The schools in the sample were
selected from two types of regions namely urban and rural. The district of the City of
Yogyakarta and Bantul County were chosen as the urban and rural representatives
respectively. The selection of the two districts and the sub-districts within those
5
districts was based on the Provincial Educational authority’s recommendation that
these two districts achieved remarkable progress in education compared with other
districts within the Province of Yogyakarta.
Schools are organized within local government areas in clusters consisting of
one nucleus school and three to eight member schools. Two nucleus schools and two
related member schools from each sub-district sample were non-randomly selected
based on the district level authorities’ recommendations, based on a request that
schools meet the requirements for the sample for this research. The sample of
Australian schools consisted of two Victorian primary schools that were nonrandomly selected.
A total of sixteen Indonesian teachers were selected from the four nucleus
schools and four member schools in the two selected regions (that is two teachers per
schools, one from upper and one from lower primary) using non-randomly selection
technique. As for the selection of Indonesian teachers, the selection of participating
Australian teachers was also based on the principals’ recommendation.
Observation and Observation Schedule
From the outset it was important to use a method of recording observations
which would provide useful information for the research questions, while ensuring
comparability between different classrooms, in different educational systems. The
method needed to be manageable, under realistic observation conditions. Knowing
that the available time for carrying the observation would be limited, it was important
that the recording could be completed in real-time, with no need to spend time after
each lesson completing detailed field-notes, or checking and annotating categoryboxes from memory after leaving the classroom.
6
It was also important that the method of observation did not pre-empt the
investigative purpose of the research by using observation categories that would force
particular conclusions while excluding others. A method, for example, that defined
active learning according to a limited set of observable criteria, before attempting to
observe any classrooms, would impose a distorting research lens on the observations.
Knowing that objectivity is a hypothetical, and unrealizable ideal, it was nonetheless
intended that the method should remain reasonably open, with scope for recording
novel events of particular, but unexpected, interest.
An important feature of the evolving method of recording was that it should
provide sufficient information about the particular classroom, the teacher’s
performance, and what the students did, individually and collectively, that could use
to reconstruct a clear account of the physical context, as well as the sequence of
classroom events. Classrooms are such complex and busy places that it becomes
extremely difficult to rely on memory, alone, to distinguish particular events, or the
sequence of events, or the duration of an event, for example.
After some preliminary trialling, and extensive discussion, a workable
framework for recording classroom observations was developed. This included the
following features, laid out on two pro-forma pages. (The observation schedule is
provided in attachment).
Page 1.Included on page 1 were spaces for noting:
school, teacher, grade, lesson-topic, number of students, and lesson-duration;
methods of assessment used during the lesson;
main features of the classroom;
resources used for instruction; and
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the start of observed behaviors, or instructional activities, with a place to
record the times at which different activities began, as well as the different
roles played by the teacher and the students.
Page 2 (and possible further pages). These allowed for continuing notes about the
classroom activities, time spent on the activities, and different roles of the teacher and
the students, as the lesson proceeded.
Figure 1 indicated the headings and aspects of the layout for this Observation
Schedule. The columns for writing notes on different aspects observed allowed space
for descriptive notes, and even for extra sketches of changing arrangements of groups
and the class, as they moved to sit on the floor, or in concerns of the room, as the
lesson progressed.
Teaching and learning is a flexible dialogue between teacher and students,
directed partly by the teacher’s sense of the students’ attention to instruction, reaction
to learning activities, and the results of practice and practical tasks. The Assessment
section was used to record aspects of teacher’s sense of the students’ attention to
instruction, reaction to learning activities, and the results of practice and practical
tasks. The Assessment section was used to record aspects of the teacher’s continuing
over-seeing of student work. During the lesson, the teacher would monitor or assess
students’ learning in different ways, sometimes by directing questions to individual
students, at other times by a process of general question-and- answer directed to a
group, or to the whole class. In some of the lessons students would be called on by the
teacher, or selected by a group of student worksheets to correct the student work after
the lesson.
8
In the section for recording the Physical Setting, a simple sketch plan was
made to show the overall layout of classroom furniture, the doors or windows,
cupboards, blackboard, students’ desks or tables, and the teacher’s desk or table. It
was also possible to show how students sat at their work places, facing the teacher, or
turned towards one another a round a table.
The section used to record Resources used during the lesson listed
instructional materials such as plastic straws, scissors, counters, number lines,
textbooks or worksheets, and the blackboard.
While the observer can fill in details of the Physical Setting when time allows,
other aspects needed to be recorded as they occurred, for example the use of particular
materials, when they were produced, or the movement of groups around the room, and
changes from one kind of activity to another.
It was anticipated that three different categories would be sufficient to describe
the Classroom Organization: whole class; small groups; and individual. However,
when the observations were carried out, it became clear that it would also be useful to
note when students worked in pairs, as this was a common seating arrangement in
several classrooms.
It was a simple matter to note, when students worked in groups, whether all
the groups were attempting the same activity, or whether each had its own activity
different from those of the other groups. Some teachers, however, employed an
additional method of organization, which was classified as “mixed”. Typically the
teacher might start a section if the lesson giving instructions to the whole class, with a
group of students being assigned a group-activity, and moving to their workstation to
start this activity independently. The teacher would then continue working with the
remainder of the class, continuing to give further instructions and explanations and
9
demonstrations. Some of these instructions might then result in another group being
given specific instructions to work as an independent group. This continued until the
last group was formed (Pardjono, 2000: 114).
Thus rather than the anticipated three types of classroom organization, a total
of five were recorded: Whole Class, Group, Pairs, Individual and Mixed.
Being familiar with a range of classrooms it was possible to anticipate
different kinds of teacher and student activities.
The list below lists some of the actions, together with their codes, used to
describe Teacher Activity:
SU – supervising students (whether working individually, or in pairs, groups or as
a whole);
ED – Explaining and demonstrating (typical chalk-and-talk exposition);
AQ- Asking Questions;
GD- Giving directions or instructions to students (as distinct from instructing);
and
MF – Motivating students and providing feedback on their efforts.
Categories for Student Activity included:
DR- Drill and practice (repetitive routine textbook-type-exercises);
LS – Listening and observing
QA – Answering Questions; and
TA – Carrying out non-drill tasks.
Much of this evolved from commonsense knowledge of typical classes, in
Australia and Indonesia. It was clear, also, without endanger the need to be as openminded and as objective as possible in observations, that usually each teacher activity
had a matching student activity. For example, of the teacher was asking questions,
10
students would be answering them; if the students were engaged in drill and practice,
the teacher was usually supervising this; and when the teacher was explaining or
demonstrating with diagrams at the blackboard, the students were usually listening
and observing.
Naturally, in practice, there were students whose attention strayed from the
teacher’s exposition or the task being carried out. However, the classes observed were
conducted by competent teachers, who had no difficulty with student control.
Typically, in cases, the teacher activities were matched by corresponding student
behavior, rather than by aberrant behavior.
Findings and Discussion
Once the lesson observations had all been completed, it was possible to begin
to compare the Observation Schedules for each lesson. But this huge amount of raw
data needed to be sifted and interpreted before any clear sense of active learning or
non-active learning could begin to emerge. How could this be done?
INDONESIA
URBAN
NUCLEUS
IUN1 IUN2
MEMBER
IUN1 IUN2
School ID
Upper
Grade
AW
BS
SM
MD
Lower
Grade
JM
SA
RK
SD
Key
Category 1: While Class and Individual
AUSTRALIA
RURAL
NUCLEUS
IUN1 IUN2
MEMBER
IUN1 IUN2
AUS1
AUS2
PJ
MS
SH
RE
CR
JH
SJ
ST
KS
TS
BM
SB
Category 2: Whole Class, Pairs, and Individual
Category 3: Whole Class, Group and Individual, with the same task for all group
Category 4: Whole Class, Group and Individual, with different task for different group
Category 5: Whole Class, Mixed, Group and Individual, with different tasks for different groups
Figure 2: Classroom Organization during four observed lessons
11
For each lesson, the notes about the time of different activities, and the
grouping categories (Whole Class, Group, Mixed, Pairs, Individual) were used to
construct a Time Line showing Classroom Organization. For example, for a 60
minute-lesson, the first observed activity might have been Whole Class for 20
minutes, followed by Mixed for a further 30 minutes, concluding with all the separate
groups being called back for the final 10 minutes as a Whole Class. The total time
spent in any one organizational category through the lesson could be totaled, and
expressed as a percentage of the whole lesson.
By types of Classroom Organization used by teachers during the four observed
lessons were classified into five categories as shown in Figure 2. Color-coding helps
to pick out category differences visually.
The Indonesian schools were classified according to whether they were Urban
or Rural, and according to whether they were Nucleus or Member schools, where
Nucleus schools were ones in which SAL had been introduced at an earlier stage, with
these schools then being used to induce a cluster of Member schools into the use of
SAL.
Similar methods were used to combine other observations of different lessons
given by each teacher. For example, a time-line was used to identify successive
changes and durations of particular categories of Teacher Activity, and related Student
Activity. This was then used to compile the total amount of time spent on each kind of
activity during the entire lesson. Finally this total was expressed proportionally as a
percentage of the total lesson time.
Since the focus of this research was on Student Active Learning, there needed
to be further analysis in terms of the extent to which student was “active” or not. At
this stage research drew on a range of background theory, including the cognitive
taxonomy of Benjamin Bloom and colleagues (Bloom et al. 1956), Robert Gagne’s
hierarchies of learning (Gagne, 1965; Gagne & Glasser, 1987), and Raka Joni’s
account of different levels of knowledge and skills (Raka Joni, 1993).
12
The researcher realizes that Bloom et al’s taxonomy and Gagne’s hierarchies
are now quite dated and have been extensively criticized. Alternative approaches to
distinguishing one kind of learning from another might have been based on Richard
Skemp’s (1979) two-level account of instrumental and relational mathematics
learning, or his three-level modification, adding formal or logical to his previous two
kinds of learning, However Skemp did not use activity as a distinguishing feature.
Focusing as closely as possible on the raw data, it was decided to identify
Low, Medium, and High levels of activity, using following distinguishing features:
Low
= base level knowledge of facts, requiring verbal recall, or
concretely handled;
Medium
= conceptual knowledge, requiring comprehension and ruleapplication; and
High
= using analysis, synthesis and conceptual evaluation, higher order
thinking and more open-ended problem solving.
Table 1: Levels of Activity and Examples of Performances.
Level and Kinds of Activity
LOW
Explaining & showing
Dictating
Giving directions
Supervising drill
Listening & observing
Drill & practice
MEDIUM
Asking questions
Supervising tasks
Leading discussion
Playing games
Answering questions
Discussing
Example of Observed performance
The activity required learner to memorize and recall
information.
Remembering facts, stated concepts, specific procedures,
rules, principles, formula.
Distinguish between member and non-member of a concept
without being fully aware of the basis for classification, such
as sorting “triangular” shapes for others.
Practicing skills, or doing drill-type exercises.
Activities involve simple interpretation and translation, such
as reading and using graphs.
Using formally defined characteristics to distinguish objects,
for example, selecting right-angled triangles from other
triangles and rectangles and right-angled polygons.
Applying concepts or rules to a related problem, such as
determining the longest side of a triangle.
Using relationships between two or more concepts, or
identifying cause-and-effect.
13
HIGH
Monitoring
Giving feedback
Investigating
Presenting solutions
Reflecting
Problem posing
Problem solving, requiring students to devise their own
methods of solution, or correctly select an appropriate
method from a collection of known methods.
The activity requires students to determine the structure or
organization of a collection of ideas.
Constructing a new concept based on existing concepts
Judging information using internally generated criteria or
externally provided criteria.
Learning how to learn
Reflecting on what is being done, or has been done, including
metacognition
These were further elaborated in terms of specific indications of performance
(see Table 1, based on Pardjono, 2000: 123; Appendix H) such as memorizing facts in
the Low Level, comprehension and interpretation in the Medium level, and concept
formation and metacognition in the High level of activity.
These Levels of Activity were also linked with specific Teacher Activities and
related Student Activities. For example a teacher explaining and demonstrating, while
students listened and observed, was regarded as a Low Level of Activity. The teacher
engaging with the students in questions and answering, or requiring students to
discuss their answers for non-drill tasks was regarded as Medium level. Students
being involved in problem solving, problem posing and reflection on investigations
was regarded as High level. Very few occurrences of High Level of Activity were
observed and relatively few occurrences of Medium Level.
This led to a classification of the observed lessons for each teacher according
to whether these contained only Low Level Activities. Low Level together with some
Medium Level Activities, or included at least some High Level of Activities. For
example, teachers in this [Medium] category used questions for probing student skill
and understanding and encouraged students to be actively learning during the whole
class discussions. However no high level activities were observed in this category
(Pardjono, 2000: 125). The results from this analysis are summarized in Figure 3.
14
School ID
Upper
Grade
Lower
Grade
INDONESIA
URBAN
RURAL
NUCLEUS
MEMBER
NUCLEUS
MEMBER
IUN1 IUN2 IUN1 IUN2 IUN1 IUN2 IUN1 IUN2
AUSTRALIA
AUS1
AUS2
AW
BS
SM
MD
PJ
MS
SH
RE
CR
JH
JM
SA
RK
SD
SJ
ST
KS
TS
BM
SB
Key
Category 1: Low level activities only
Category 2: Some medium level activities
Category 3: Some high level activities
Figure 3: Level of Activity observed
A further stage in the lesson analysis considered the structures of the observed
lessons in terms of what was referred to as the Lesson Focus. Four Lesson Foci were
identified: Explanation of Task, Working Task, Reflecting on Task, and Closure. As in
previous analyses reported here, each lesson (and subsequently the four lessons for
each teacher) was analyzed in terms of the proportion of time spent on the first three
of these foci. Closure, which accounted for a very small percentage of time, was
ignored here.
Lesson Mode was used to refer to the emphasis placed by each teacher, in
terms of time, on Explanation of Task, Working on Task, and Reflecting on Task.
When the overall percentages of time for the observed lessons for each teacher were
compared, three of the possible six rank orderings of foci by time were observed.
School ID
Upper
Grade
Lower
Grade
INDONESIA
URBAN
RURAL
NUCLEUS
MEMBER
NUCLEUS
MEMBER
IUN1 IUN2 IUN1 IUN2 IUN1 IUN2 IUN1 IUN2
AUSTRALIA
AUS1
AUS2
AW
BS
SM
MD
PJ
MS
SH
RE
CR
JH
JM
SA
RK
SD
SJ
ST
KS
TS
BM
SB
Key
15
Category 1: Explanation on Task, Working on Task, Reflecting on Task
Category 2: Working on Task, Explanation of ask, Reflecting on Task
Category 3: Working on Task, Reflecting on Task, Explanation of Task
Figure 4: Lesson Mode
The three Lesson Modes observed were:
most was spent on Explanation on the Task, with less tine spent on Working on
the Task, and least time spent on Reflecting on the Task;
most time was spent on Working on the Task, with less time spent on
Explanation of the Task, and least time spent on Reflecting on the Task; and
most time was spent on Working on the Task, with less time spent on
Reflecting on the Task, and least time spent on Explanation of the Task
(Pardjono, 2000: 130). The results of the analysis are presented in Figure 4.
This is only part of the story of the investigation. Drawing on other parts of the
information collected using the Observation Schedule, similar details analysis was
also carried out for such aspects of the lesson as Resources used, the Physical Setting,
and the methods used for Assessment.
For example, it was possible to analyze the Assessment of classroom activities
into categories based on what was being assessed: knowledge and skills,
understanding, thinking processes, and effective aspects of the lesson (Pardjono,
2000: 136). This was further analyzed according to the nature of the assessment:
written test, teacher observation, teacher interview, or non-test written work.
The Physical Setting was analyzed according to the rigidity or flexibility with
which classroom furniture and student groupings and seating were managed through
the observed lessons. In some classrooms the furniture was so bulky and heavy it was
immovable, for example, while in others the students were able to move work-tables
16
and chairs around during a lesson or the setting was altered from lesson to lesson,
which tended to facilitate variable group work.
Conclusion and Recommendation
Conclusion
By carefully analyzing, examining, and comparing nine aspects of teacher’s classroom
practice observed, five distinct different types of Students Active Learning
implementation in mathematics classroom practices were identified. These types are
summarized in Table 2.
Table 2. Summary of Features of the Five Types of SAL Mathematics Classrooms
Type of Mathematics
Classroom
Traditional Classroom
Conventional Classroom
Transitional Classroom
Consortium’ Classroom
Constructivist Classroom
Main Features
All nine observed aspects in lowest category
At least one of Classroom Organization, Physical Setting,
Lesson Mode, Assessment and Resources Used in
category 2 or higher, but no medium or high level of
activities
Some medium level activities
Some high level activities and use of group work
Some high level Activities, some reflection on task & use
of group work
Separately from the observed lessons, each teacher was interviewed using a
semi structured interview schedule, investigating teachers’ educational backgrounds,
ideas about the nature of mathematics, and about approaches to mathematics teaching.
Generally the Australian teachers commented spontaneously on their interest in
student activity, while the Indonesian teachers were explicitly questioned about their
knowledge of Student Active Learning. Categories relating to different features in the
interviews were developed, and the information from the interviews was subjected to
critical analysis along similar lines to the category development and critical analysis
of the classroom observations.
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One important level of analysis of the Indonesian situation focused on the
differences between urban schools and remote rural schools. Interestingly the urban
school teachers observed in Indonesian were judged to be operating at the Traditional
or Conventional levels (which would have been expected in pre-SAL classrooms),
whereas almost all the rural teachers were considered to be at the Transitional or
Consortium level-that is, observably engaged in implementing SAL. This urban-rural
difference was contrary to the expectation that teachers closer to urban centers, and
teacher-training facilities would be better informed, better equipped, and with greater
access to and involvement in professional development relating to SAL and its
implementation. However the factor that appeared to have favored the observed rural
schools was their involvement in the Primary Education Quality Improvement Project
(PEQIP) activities (Pardjono, 2000: 253). The Primary Education Quality
Improvement Project had been established in 1993, with support from the World
Bank, to improve primary school quality in a small number of Indonesian provinces,
as part of the trialling and partial implementation of SAL. The research found that
rural schools had better professional development than urban schools, whereas urban
teachers tended to be better trained and to have had more years of teaching
experience. Incidentally, the only teachers whose classrooms were classified as
Constructivist were three of the four Australian teachers.
Another stage of analysis considered the leadership roles played by school
principals (head teachers), regional inspectors (school supervisors), and teacher
support-groups through “teacher clubs”, an Indonesian approach to the process of
after-hours professional development and collegial support.
A further stage of critical discussion then attempted to link the classroom
observation analysis with the interview analysis. This exposed gaps or discrepancies
18
between what teacher state they believed, or valued, and what was observed in
practice. Similar discrepancies and uncertainties also arose from a background
analysis of the published discussion of SAL which had led to successive attempts to
implement it, region by region, and, eventually, nationally.
Recommendation
Finally, the large descriptive and investigational research question about the
implementation of SAL was addressed, and recommendations were made for
modifying and improving the use of SAL generally.
The findings of this study show that most urban school teachers’
implementation of SAL principle resulted in what is termed here as Traditional and
Conventional mathematics classrooms. On the other hand, most rural schools
teachers’ implementation of SAL principles was closer to the current concepts of
SAL, resulting in what is termed here as Transitional and Consortium mathematics
classrooms. However, no Indonesian teachers’ implementation of SAL principle
resulted in Constructivist mathematics classrooms. Thus Consortium classrooms were
the highest level achieved by the Indonesian teachers in this study. This is not
surprising since an examination of the documents investigated in this study showed
that SAL Consortium concept had not discussed the importance of “reflection” as a
strategy to encourage children in active meaningful learning. There is need therefore
to incorporate reflection in both the theoretical basis of SAL and its practical
implementation.
In order to enable teachers to effectively implement SAL there needs to be a
reduction in the target curriculum coverage and a change in the requirement that
19
teachers provide handwritten lesson plans for each lesson in all subjects that they
teach.
In order to promote teacher change, schools and local authorities should
conduct frequent and continuing programs on Student Active Learning and encourage
teachers to share innovative ideas through presentations at Head Teachers Club
meetings.
References
Bloom, BS., Engelhart, M.D., Furst, E.J., Walker, H.H & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956).
Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals:
Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay London Longman.
Gagne, R. M., (1965). The conditions of learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston.
Gagne, R., Glasser, R. (1987). Foundations on learning research. In R. Gagne (Ed.),
Instructional technology: Foundations. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Moegiadi, Tangyong, A. F., & Gardner, R. (1994). The active learning through
professional support (ALP) project in Indonesia. In A. Little, W. Hoppers, and
R. Gardner (Eds.). Beyond Jomtien: Implementing primary education for all
(pp. 45 – 67). London: MacMillan.
Pardjono (2000). The Implementation of Student Active Learning in Primary
Mathematics in Indonesia. Unpublished Ph.D thesis. Deakin University,
Burwood, Australia.
Raka Joni, T. (1990). Kurikulum pendidikan dasar menyongsong era informasi:
Sebuah pemikiran tentang kurikulum sekolah dasar. Analisis CSIS, 19(5), 464–
483.
Raka Joni, T. (1992). Cara Belajar Siswa Aktif (CBSA): Artikulasi konseptual,
jabaran operational dan verifikasi empirik [Student Active Learning approach:
Articulation of concepts, a guide for implementation, and its empirical
verification]. Forum Penelitian, 4 (1 & 2), 5-40.
20
Raka Joni, T. (1993). Cara Belajar Siswa Aktif: Acuan konseptual peningkatan mutu
kegiatan belajar-mangajar. In C. R. Semiawan and T. Raka Joni (Eds.),
Pendekatan pembelajaran: Acuan konseptual pengelolaan kegiatan belajarmangajar di sekolah. Jakarta: The Educational Consortium.
Skemp, R. R. (1976). Relational and instrumental understanding. Mathematics
Teaching, 77, 20-26.
Skemp, R. R. (1979). Goals of learning and qualities of understanding. Mathematics
Teaching, 88, 44-49.
21
LEARNING FROM CLASSROOM OBSERVATION
Pardjono
Yogyakarta State University
pardjono@uny.ac.id or jpardjono@yahoo.com
Susie Groves
Deakin University
grovesac@deakin, edu.au
John Gough
Deakin University, Austalia
Abstract: This qualitative interpretive case study was carried out employing
four classroom observations in each of twelve Indonesian and four Australian
primary school classrooms, focusing on the continuing attempts to implement
new teaching methods called Student Active Learning (SAL). SAL may be
explained, briefly, as an attempt, within the centralized Indonesian school
system, to implement student-centered constructivist ideas. A study of the
relevant literature indicates that teaching based on constructivist principles is
unlikely to be implemented well in the classroom unless there are highly quality
teachers, readily available manipulative materials, and supportive learning
environment. As Indonesian often lack one or more of these aspects, it seemed
likely that Student Active Learning principles might not be “fully” implemented
in Indonesian primary mathematics classrooms. Thus smaller scale, parallel
study was carried out in Australian schools where there is no policy of Student
Active Learning but where its underlying principles are compatible with the
stated views about learning and teaching. The results of this study suggest that
SAL has been implemented at four levels in Indonesian primary mathematics
classroom, ranging from essentially no implementation to a relatively high level
of implementation, with an even higher level of implementation in three of the
four Australian classrooms observed.
Kata kunci: belajar aktif, case study, primary mathematics
In the 1994 Curriculum the government of Indonesia recommended that
Student Active Learning (abbreviated as SAL) approach should be adopted for
learning and teaching in all schools to improve quality of learning and teaching
practices.
This qualitative interpretive case study was carried out employing four
classroom observations in each of twelve Indonesian and four Australian primary
Pardjono adalah Dosen Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta
school classrooms. These classroom observations were part of research on the
Implementation of Student Active Learning into primary school teaching in Indonesia,
focusing on the continuing attempts to implement new teaching methods called
Student Active Learning (SAL)- an English translation of the Indonesian expression
Cara Belajar Siswa Active (CBSA), which may be literally translated as Methods
Learning Student Active. SAL may be explained, briefly, as an attempt, within the
centralized Indonesian school system, to implement student-centered constructivist
ideas.
It should be noted that this new SAL curriculum was intended to be a
replacement, or extension of previously existing methods which have been
predominantly
teacher-centered,
and
expository
or
didactic.
The
earlier
Developmental Instruction System – or, literally, Procedure Development System
Instructional-formulated measurable instructional objectives, devised appropriate
content and instructional methods, and used standardized written tests and
examination to assess learning outcomes. However, PPSI emphasized skills and
memorized facts.
Another important aspect of SAL is that it is a new national policy that is to be
applied across the curriculum-that is, in most school key learning areas, at both
primary and secondary levels. It should also be noted that the existing highly
centralized system of achievement testing at most levels of Indonesian schooling have
continued through more that a decade of development trialling, and successive stages
of nation-wide implementation of SAL.
Initially, the Government established two SAL projects, namely the Teacher
Education Development Project and the Cianjur Project. Through TEDP project
Student Active Learning was introduced through primary and secondary pre-service
2
teacher education. The Cianjur project on the other hand implemented Student Active
Learning through in-service teacher education and a Professional Development
System
which were initiated from the top (at Ministry level) while also being
implemented from the bottom (at sub district level). The aims of the Cianjur project,
which involved teachers, head teachers, and school supervisors were to:
provide children with activities to assist their learning;
encourage cooperative learning in the classroom;
assist learning by providing for problem solving based on direct observation;
work cooperatively within the community to provide for the education of
children;
provide for teachers to meet regularly to exchange ideas; and
provide help and guidance through teacher center. (Moegiadi, Tangyong &
Gardner, 1994: 45).
The TEDP project was considered to have failed to implement Student Active
Learning in classrooms (Raka Joni, 1993). It was assumed that it was because the
institutional and training “distance” from Teacher College and Teacher Training
School to primary schools classroom was too great (Raka Joni, 1992). The lectures of
Institute of Teacher Training and Education who had been trained about Student
Active Learning taught student-teachers, and later some of these would become
“teacher trainers” in the Teacher Training Schools. The Teacher Training School
leavers would then teach in primary schools.
The Cianjur project on the other hand was considered successful, based on the
assessment criteria determined by the Office of Educational Research and
Development, Ministry of Education, because it was regarded as having succeeded in
making the teaching and learning process more active for students (Moegiadi,
Tangyong & Gardner, 1994: 60; Raka Joni 1990: 35). However, its conceptual basis
was considered to be weak (Raka Joni, 1992) because it was presented in an
oversimplified way.
3
The Consortium of Education attempted to reformulate philosophical and
psychological bases of SAL to make the theory clearer and to accommodated recent
theories of learning. Raka Joni, one of the Consortium’s members, developed theories
based on two basic principles of the SAL approach: constructivistivism and the tut
wuri handayani principle (Raka Joni, 1993: 57). The first principle argues for
constructivist view of learning – i.e. viewing learning in terms of students
constructing their own meanings from their learning experiences. The second
principle, a Javanese expression tut wuri handayani, is literally translated as “follow
but always be aware”. This principle allows students to follow their own path of
learning as much as possible.
The problems of Student Active Learning implementation, therefore, could
come from the concepts themselves, or the process and strategy used for the
implementation, or from personnel at the delivery level such as teachers, head
teachers and supervisors. Discussing such difficulties in implementation of such
innovation.
The aim of this study was to investigate the implementation of Student Active
Leaning (SAL) in primary mathematics in Indonesian schools. The study focuses on
existing learning and teaching practices in Indonesian primary mathematics
classrooms and examines the extent to which primary teachers have implemented
SAL principles in their mathematics teaching practices.
The implementation of a new approach in the context of existing teaching
practice involves teacher change. Teacher change is always tied to teacher’s
conceptions and beliefs about new learning and teaching approaches and about subject
matter. To assimilate new ideas, teachers need the opportunity to reformulate their
own ideas in order to change their existing conceptions and integrate these new
4
concepts of learning and teaching into their teaching of the subjects matter. Thus,
teachers’ beliefs about Student Active Learning, about subject matter influence their
implementation of SAL in classroom practice.
Given that the focus of study involved many factors, it was considered
appropriate to use a qualitative methodology within an interpretive paradigm. Such
paradigms guide research in their practical scientific activities. Guba and Lincoln
(1994: 105), argues that a paradigm, defined as a “basic beliefs system or worldview”,
is primary as it guides disciplined inquiry for investigations in choosing the
appropriate methodology for their research. Case study was employed as strategy of
inquiry in this study and classroom observation and interviews as major methods of
data collection.
Methodology
The study set out to investigate the implementation of Student Active
Learning. This required some picture of students being active, or not, and teachers
promoting active or other kinds of learning. The study also aimed to link classroom
observations data with information about teachers’ backgrounds, and interview-data
about their educational beliefs and declared views about curriculum, learning and the
mathematics curriculum.
Selection of Participants
The sample of Indonesian schools consisted of eight schools, selected from
two regions in Java using non-random selection. The schools in the sample were
selected from two types of regions namely urban and rural. The district of the City of
Yogyakarta and Bantul County were chosen as the urban and rural representatives
respectively. The selection of the two districts and the sub-districts within those
5
districts was based on the Provincial Educational authority’s recommendation that
these two districts achieved remarkable progress in education compared with other
districts within the Province of Yogyakarta.
Schools are organized within local government areas in clusters consisting of
one nucleus school and three to eight member schools. Two nucleus schools and two
related member schools from each sub-district sample were non-randomly selected
based on the district level authorities’ recommendations, based on a request that
schools meet the requirements for the sample for this research. The sample of
Australian schools consisted of two Victorian primary schools that were nonrandomly selected.
A total of sixteen Indonesian teachers were selected from the four nucleus
schools and four member schools in the two selected regions (that is two teachers per
schools, one from upper and one from lower primary) using non-randomly selection
technique. As for the selection of Indonesian teachers, the selection of participating
Australian teachers was also based on the principals’ recommendation.
Observation and Observation Schedule
From the outset it was important to use a method of recording observations
which would provide useful information for the research questions, while ensuring
comparability between different classrooms, in different educational systems. The
method needed to be manageable, under realistic observation conditions. Knowing
that the available time for carrying the observation would be limited, it was important
that the recording could be completed in real-time, with no need to spend time after
each lesson completing detailed field-notes, or checking and annotating categoryboxes from memory after leaving the classroom.
6
It was also important that the method of observation did not pre-empt the
investigative purpose of the research by using observation categories that would force
particular conclusions while excluding others. A method, for example, that defined
active learning according to a limited set of observable criteria, before attempting to
observe any classrooms, would impose a distorting research lens on the observations.
Knowing that objectivity is a hypothetical, and unrealizable ideal, it was nonetheless
intended that the method should remain reasonably open, with scope for recording
novel events of particular, but unexpected, interest.
An important feature of the evolving method of recording was that it should
provide sufficient information about the particular classroom, the teacher’s
performance, and what the students did, individually and collectively, that could use
to reconstruct a clear account of the physical context, as well as the sequence of
classroom events. Classrooms are such complex and busy places that it becomes
extremely difficult to rely on memory, alone, to distinguish particular events, or the
sequence of events, or the duration of an event, for example.
After some preliminary trialling, and extensive discussion, a workable
framework for recording classroom observations was developed. This included the
following features, laid out on two pro-forma pages. (The observation schedule is
provided in attachment).
Page 1.Included on page 1 were spaces for noting:
school, teacher, grade, lesson-topic, number of students, and lesson-duration;
methods of assessment used during the lesson;
main features of the classroom;
resources used for instruction; and
7
the start of observed behaviors, or instructional activities, with a place to
record the times at which different activities began, as well as the different
roles played by the teacher and the students.
Page 2 (and possible further pages). These allowed for continuing notes about the
classroom activities, time spent on the activities, and different roles of the teacher and
the students, as the lesson proceeded.
Figure 1 indicated the headings and aspects of the layout for this Observation
Schedule. The columns for writing notes on different aspects observed allowed space
for descriptive notes, and even for extra sketches of changing arrangements of groups
and the class, as they moved to sit on the floor, or in concerns of the room, as the
lesson progressed.
Teaching and learning is a flexible dialogue between teacher and students,
directed partly by the teacher’s sense of the students’ attention to instruction, reaction
to learning activities, and the results of practice and practical tasks. The Assessment
section was used to record aspects of teacher’s sense of the students’ attention to
instruction, reaction to learning activities, and the results of practice and practical
tasks. The Assessment section was used to record aspects of the teacher’s continuing
over-seeing of student work. During the lesson, the teacher would monitor or assess
students’ learning in different ways, sometimes by directing questions to individual
students, at other times by a process of general question-and- answer directed to a
group, or to the whole class. In some of the lessons students would be called on by the
teacher, or selected by a group of student worksheets to correct the student work after
the lesson.
8
In the section for recording the Physical Setting, a simple sketch plan was
made to show the overall layout of classroom furniture, the doors or windows,
cupboards, blackboard, students’ desks or tables, and the teacher’s desk or table. It
was also possible to show how students sat at their work places, facing the teacher, or
turned towards one another a round a table.
The section used to record Resources used during the lesson listed
instructional materials such as plastic straws, scissors, counters, number lines,
textbooks or worksheets, and the blackboard.
While the observer can fill in details of the Physical Setting when time allows,
other aspects needed to be recorded as they occurred, for example the use of particular
materials, when they were produced, or the movement of groups around the room, and
changes from one kind of activity to another.
It was anticipated that three different categories would be sufficient to describe
the Classroom Organization: whole class; small groups; and individual. However,
when the observations were carried out, it became clear that it would also be useful to
note when students worked in pairs, as this was a common seating arrangement in
several classrooms.
It was a simple matter to note, when students worked in groups, whether all
the groups were attempting the same activity, or whether each had its own activity
different from those of the other groups. Some teachers, however, employed an
additional method of organization, which was classified as “mixed”. Typically the
teacher might start a section if the lesson giving instructions to the whole class, with a
group of students being assigned a group-activity, and moving to their workstation to
start this activity independently. The teacher would then continue working with the
remainder of the class, continuing to give further instructions and explanations and
9
demonstrations. Some of these instructions might then result in another group being
given specific instructions to work as an independent group. This continued until the
last group was formed (Pardjono, 2000: 114).
Thus rather than the anticipated three types of classroom organization, a total
of five were recorded: Whole Class, Group, Pairs, Individual and Mixed.
Being familiar with a range of classrooms it was possible to anticipate
different kinds of teacher and student activities.
The list below lists some of the actions, together with their codes, used to
describe Teacher Activity:
SU – supervising students (whether working individually, or in pairs, groups or as
a whole);
ED – Explaining and demonstrating (typical chalk-and-talk exposition);
AQ- Asking Questions;
GD- Giving directions or instructions to students (as distinct from instructing);
and
MF – Motivating students and providing feedback on their efforts.
Categories for Student Activity included:
DR- Drill and practice (repetitive routine textbook-type-exercises);
LS – Listening and observing
QA – Answering Questions; and
TA – Carrying out non-drill tasks.
Much of this evolved from commonsense knowledge of typical classes, in
Australia and Indonesia. It was clear, also, without endanger the need to be as openminded and as objective as possible in observations, that usually each teacher activity
had a matching student activity. For example, of the teacher was asking questions,
10
students would be answering them; if the students were engaged in drill and practice,
the teacher was usually supervising this; and when the teacher was explaining or
demonstrating with diagrams at the blackboard, the students were usually listening
and observing.
Naturally, in practice, there were students whose attention strayed from the
teacher’s exposition or the task being carried out. However, the classes observed were
conducted by competent teachers, who had no difficulty with student control.
Typically, in cases, the teacher activities were matched by corresponding student
behavior, rather than by aberrant behavior.
Findings and Discussion
Once the lesson observations had all been completed, it was possible to begin
to compare the Observation Schedules for each lesson. But this huge amount of raw
data needed to be sifted and interpreted before any clear sense of active learning or
non-active learning could begin to emerge. How could this be done?
INDONESIA
URBAN
NUCLEUS
IUN1 IUN2
MEMBER
IUN1 IUN2
School ID
Upper
Grade
AW
BS
SM
MD
Lower
Grade
JM
SA
RK
SD
Key
Category 1: While Class and Individual
AUSTRALIA
RURAL
NUCLEUS
IUN1 IUN2
MEMBER
IUN1 IUN2
AUS1
AUS2
PJ
MS
SH
RE
CR
JH
SJ
ST
KS
TS
BM
SB
Category 2: Whole Class, Pairs, and Individual
Category 3: Whole Class, Group and Individual, with the same task for all group
Category 4: Whole Class, Group and Individual, with different task for different group
Category 5: Whole Class, Mixed, Group and Individual, with different tasks for different groups
Figure 2: Classroom Organization during four observed lessons
11
For each lesson, the notes about the time of different activities, and the
grouping categories (Whole Class, Group, Mixed, Pairs, Individual) were used to
construct a Time Line showing Classroom Organization. For example, for a 60
minute-lesson, the first observed activity might have been Whole Class for 20
minutes, followed by Mixed for a further 30 minutes, concluding with all the separate
groups being called back for the final 10 minutes as a Whole Class. The total time
spent in any one organizational category through the lesson could be totaled, and
expressed as a percentage of the whole lesson.
By types of Classroom Organization used by teachers during the four observed
lessons were classified into five categories as shown in Figure 2. Color-coding helps
to pick out category differences visually.
The Indonesian schools were classified according to whether they were Urban
or Rural, and according to whether they were Nucleus or Member schools, where
Nucleus schools were ones in which SAL had been introduced at an earlier stage, with
these schools then being used to induce a cluster of Member schools into the use of
SAL.
Similar methods were used to combine other observations of different lessons
given by each teacher. For example, a time-line was used to identify successive
changes and durations of particular categories of Teacher Activity, and related Student
Activity. This was then used to compile the total amount of time spent on each kind of
activity during the entire lesson. Finally this total was expressed proportionally as a
percentage of the total lesson time.
Since the focus of this research was on Student Active Learning, there needed
to be further analysis in terms of the extent to which student was “active” or not. At
this stage research drew on a range of background theory, including the cognitive
taxonomy of Benjamin Bloom and colleagues (Bloom et al. 1956), Robert Gagne’s
hierarchies of learning (Gagne, 1965; Gagne & Glasser, 1987), and Raka Joni’s
account of different levels of knowledge and skills (Raka Joni, 1993).
12
The researcher realizes that Bloom et al’s taxonomy and Gagne’s hierarchies
are now quite dated and have been extensively criticized. Alternative approaches to
distinguishing one kind of learning from another might have been based on Richard
Skemp’s (1979) two-level account of instrumental and relational mathematics
learning, or his three-level modification, adding formal or logical to his previous two
kinds of learning, However Skemp did not use activity as a distinguishing feature.
Focusing as closely as possible on the raw data, it was decided to identify
Low, Medium, and High levels of activity, using following distinguishing features:
Low
= base level knowledge of facts, requiring verbal recall, or
concretely handled;
Medium
= conceptual knowledge, requiring comprehension and ruleapplication; and
High
= using analysis, synthesis and conceptual evaluation, higher order
thinking and more open-ended problem solving.
Table 1: Levels of Activity and Examples of Performances.
Level and Kinds of Activity
LOW
Explaining & showing
Dictating
Giving directions
Supervising drill
Listening & observing
Drill & practice
MEDIUM
Asking questions
Supervising tasks
Leading discussion
Playing games
Answering questions
Discussing
Example of Observed performance
The activity required learner to memorize and recall
information.
Remembering facts, stated concepts, specific procedures,
rules, principles, formula.
Distinguish between member and non-member of a concept
without being fully aware of the basis for classification, such
as sorting “triangular” shapes for others.
Practicing skills, or doing drill-type exercises.
Activities involve simple interpretation and translation, such
as reading and using graphs.
Using formally defined characteristics to distinguish objects,
for example, selecting right-angled triangles from other
triangles and rectangles and right-angled polygons.
Applying concepts or rules to a related problem, such as
determining the longest side of a triangle.
Using relationships between two or more concepts, or
identifying cause-and-effect.
13
HIGH
Monitoring
Giving feedback
Investigating
Presenting solutions
Reflecting
Problem posing
Problem solving, requiring students to devise their own
methods of solution, or correctly select an appropriate
method from a collection of known methods.
The activity requires students to determine the structure or
organization of a collection of ideas.
Constructing a new concept based on existing concepts
Judging information using internally generated criteria or
externally provided criteria.
Learning how to learn
Reflecting on what is being done, or has been done, including
metacognition
These were further elaborated in terms of specific indications of performance
(see Table 1, based on Pardjono, 2000: 123; Appendix H) such as memorizing facts in
the Low Level, comprehension and interpretation in the Medium level, and concept
formation and metacognition in the High level of activity.
These Levels of Activity were also linked with specific Teacher Activities and
related Student Activities. For example a teacher explaining and demonstrating, while
students listened and observed, was regarded as a Low Level of Activity. The teacher
engaging with the students in questions and answering, or requiring students to
discuss their answers for non-drill tasks was regarded as Medium level. Students
being involved in problem solving, problem posing and reflection on investigations
was regarded as High level. Very few occurrences of High Level of Activity were
observed and relatively few occurrences of Medium Level.
This led to a classification of the observed lessons for each teacher according
to whether these contained only Low Level Activities. Low Level together with some
Medium Level Activities, or included at least some High Level of Activities. For
example, teachers in this [Medium] category used questions for probing student skill
and understanding and encouraged students to be actively learning during the whole
class discussions. However no high level activities were observed in this category
(Pardjono, 2000: 125). The results from this analysis are summarized in Figure 3.
14
School ID
Upper
Grade
Lower
Grade
INDONESIA
URBAN
RURAL
NUCLEUS
MEMBER
NUCLEUS
MEMBER
IUN1 IUN2 IUN1 IUN2 IUN1 IUN2 IUN1 IUN2
AUSTRALIA
AUS1
AUS2
AW
BS
SM
MD
PJ
MS
SH
RE
CR
JH
JM
SA
RK
SD
SJ
ST
KS
TS
BM
SB
Key
Category 1: Low level activities only
Category 2: Some medium level activities
Category 3: Some high level activities
Figure 3: Level of Activity observed
A further stage in the lesson analysis considered the structures of the observed
lessons in terms of what was referred to as the Lesson Focus. Four Lesson Foci were
identified: Explanation of Task, Working Task, Reflecting on Task, and Closure. As in
previous analyses reported here, each lesson (and subsequently the four lessons for
each teacher) was analyzed in terms of the proportion of time spent on the first three
of these foci. Closure, which accounted for a very small percentage of time, was
ignored here.
Lesson Mode was used to refer to the emphasis placed by each teacher, in
terms of time, on Explanation of Task, Working on Task, and Reflecting on Task.
When the overall percentages of time for the observed lessons for each teacher were
compared, three of the possible six rank orderings of foci by time were observed.
School ID
Upper
Grade
Lower
Grade
INDONESIA
URBAN
RURAL
NUCLEUS
MEMBER
NUCLEUS
MEMBER
IUN1 IUN2 IUN1 IUN2 IUN1 IUN2 IUN1 IUN2
AUSTRALIA
AUS1
AUS2
AW
BS
SM
MD
PJ
MS
SH
RE
CR
JH
JM
SA
RK
SD
SJ
ST
KS
TS
BM
SB
Key
15
Category 1: Explanation on Task, Working on Task, Reflecting on Task
Category 2: Working on Task, Explanation of ask, Reflecting on Task
Category 3: Working on Task, Reflecting on Task, Explanation of Task
Figure 4: Lesson Mode
The three Lesson Modes observed were:
most was spent on Explanation on the Task, with less tine spent on Working on
the Task, and least time spent on Reflecting on the Task;
most time was spent on Working on the Task, with less time spent on
Explanation of the Task, and least time spent on Reflecting on the Task; and
most time was spent on Working on the Task, with less time spent on
Reflecting on the Task, and least time spent on Explanation of the Task
(Pardjono, 2000: 130). The results of the analysis are presented in Figure 4.
This is only part of the story of the investigation. Drawing on other parts of the
information collected using the Observation Schedule, similar details analysis was
also carried out for such aspects of the lesson as Resources used, the Physical Setting,
and the methods used for Assessment.
For example, it was possible to analyze the Assessment of classroom activities
into categories based on what was being assessed: knowledge and skills,
understanding, thinking processes, and effective aspects of the lesson (Pardjono,
2000: 136). This was further analyzed according to the nature of the assessment:
written test, teacher observation, teacher interview, or non-test written work.
The Physical Setting was analyzed according to the rigidity or flexibility with
which classroom furniture and student groupings and seating were managed through
the observed lessons. In some classrooms the furniture was so bulky and heavy it was
immovable, for example, while in others the students were able to move work-tables
16
and chairs around during a lesson or the setting was altered from lesson to lesson,
which tended to facilitate variable group work.
Conclusion and Recommendation
Conclusion
By carefully analyzing, examining, and comparing nine aspects of teacher’s classroom
practice observed, five distinct different types of Students Active Learning
implementation in mathematics classroom practices were identified. These types are
summarized in Table 2.
Table 2. Summary of Features of the Five Types of SAL Mathematics Classrooms
Type of Mathematics
Classroom
Traditional Classroom
Conventional Classroom
Transitional Classroom
Consortium’ Classroom
Constructivist Classroom
Main Features
All nine observed aspects in lowest category
At least one of Classroom Organization, Physical Setting,
Lesson Mode, Assessment and Resources Used in
category 2 or higher, but no medium or high level of
activities
Some medium level activities
Some high level activities and use of group work
Some high level Activities, some reflection on task & use
of group work
Separately from the observed lessons, each teacher was interviewed using a
semi structured interview schedule, investigating teachers’ educational backgrounds,
ideas about the nature of mathematics, and about approaches to mathematics teaching.
Generally the Australian teachers commented spontaneously on their interest in
student activity, while the Indonesian teachers were explicitly questioned about their
knowledge of Student Active Learning. Categories relating to different features in the
interviews were developed, and the information from the interviews was subjected to
critical analysis along similar lines to the category development and critical analysis
of the classroom observations.
17
One important level of analysis of the Indonesian situation focused on the
differences between urban schools and remote rural schools. Interestingly the urban
school teachers observed in Indonesian were judged to be operating at the Traditional
or Conventional levels (which would have been expected in pre-SAL classrooms),
whereas almost all the rural teachers were considered to be at the Transitional or
Consortium level-that is, observably engaged in implementing SAL. This urban-rural
difference was contrary to the expectation that teachers closer to urban centers, and
teacher-training facilities would be better informed, better equipped, and with greater
access to and involvement in professional development relating to SAL and its
implementation. However the factor that appeared to have favored the observed rural
schools was their involvement in the Primary Education Quality Improvement Project
(PEQIP) activities (Pardjono, 2000: 253). The Primary Education Quality
Improvement Project had been established in 1993, with support from the World
Bank, to improve primary school quality in a small number of Indonesian provinces,
as part of the trialling and partial implementation of SAL. The research found that
rural schools had better professional development than urban schools, whereas urban
teachers tended to be better trained and to have had more years of teaching
experience. Incidentally, the only teachers whose classrooms were classified as
Constructivist were three of the four Australian teachers.
Another stage of analysis considered the leadership roles played by school
principals (head teachers), regional inspectors (school supervisors), and teacher
support-groups through “teacher clubs”, an Indonesian approach to the process of
after-hours professional development and collegial support.
A further stage of critical discussion then attempted to link the classroom
observation analysis with the interview analysis. This exposed gaps or discrepancies
18
between what teacher state they believed, or valued, and what was observed in
practice. Similar discrepancies and uncertainties also arose from a background
analysis of the published discussion of SAL which had led to successive attempts to
implement it, region by region, and, eventually, nationally.
Recommendation
Finally, the large descriptive and investigational research question about the
implementation of SAL was addressed, and recommendations were made for
modifying and improving the use of SAL generally.
The findings of this study show that most urban school teachers’
implementation of SAL principle resulted in what is termed here as Traditional and
Conventional mathematics classrooms. On the other hand, most rural schools
teachers’ implementation of SAL principles was closer to the current concepts of
SAL, resulting in what is termed here as Transitional and Consortium mathematics
classrooms. However, no Indonesian teachers’ implementation of SAL principle
resulted in Constructivist mathematics classrooms. Thus Consortium classrooms were
the highest level achieved by the Indonesian teachers in this study. This is not
surprising since an examination of the documents investigated in this study showed
that SAL Consortium concept had not discussed the importance of “reflection” as a
strategy to encourage children in active meaningful learning. There is need therefore
to incorporate reflection in both the theoretical basis of SAL and its practical
implementation.
In order to enable teachers to effectively implement SAL there needs to be a
reduction in the target curriculum coverage and a change in the requirement that
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teachers provide handwritten lesson plans for each lesson in all subjects that they
teach.
In order to promote teacher change, schools and local authorities should
conduct frequent and continuing programs on Student Active Learning and encourage
teachers to share innovative ideas through presentations at Head Teachers Club
meetings.
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