BASICS URBAN ANALYSIS

URBAN
~GERRIT

~DESIGN
~FUNDRMENTRLS
O F P R E S E N T R T IO N
~CONSTRUCTION
~PROFESSIONRL
P R R C T IC E
~BUILDING
P H Y S IC S
R N D B U IL D IN G
~BUILDING
M R T E R IR L S
~LRNDSCRPE
R R C H IT E C T U R E GFEDCBA

S E R V IC E S

URBANISM
~THEORY UTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA

Rs a basis
for city planning
and architectural
design
work,
a solid
understanding
of the existing
and surrounding
urban structures
is indispensable.
Basics
Urban
Analysis
explains
the possible
approaches
to urban
analysis;

it also describes
in practical
terms
how to implement
those
approaches
in the areas
analyzed,
and how to evaluate
the data collected.

A N A L Y S IS
SCHWALBACH~

nmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLK

CONTENTSzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIH

\\Foreword

7

\\Introduction

9

\\ Theoretical principles of urban analysis _13
\\Aesthetic observation: the visible city _13
\\Scientific observation: the invisible city _16
\\Integrative observation: the logical city _17
\\Implementation

_23

\\Preparation

and planning phases _23

\\Obtaining and processing data _27
\\ Working in the area under analysis _34

\\Methods of analysis _38
\\Historical analysis _38
\\Analysis of land use structure _41
\\Analysis of transport

structure _48

\\Analysis of open space and green structure _56
\\Analysis of construction and housing structure _62
\\Analysis of social space _65
\\Interpretation

and illustration_71

\\Interaction

of the results of sectoral analysis _71

\\Concluding evaluation _71
\\ Transition to subsequent course of action _74

\\Illustration

of the results of analysis _75

\\In conclusion _79
\\Appendix _80
\\Literature _80
\\Picture credits
\\ The author _82

80

1-

aZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA

FOREW ORD

Studying existing urban structures, with their diverse social, historical and architectural

influences, is a major part of modern urban planning.

Cities and city districts are often marked by many generations, each with
a different way of thinking. An urban neighborhood is characterized by the
way these many influences overlap.
Analyzing the mechanisms behind an urban neighborhood's

charac-

teristics, recording its broader spatial context, and identifying the failings
and mistakes of urban planning form the basis for safeguarding the longterm future of existing urban neighborhoods

and their further develop-

ment. This makes city analysis fundamental to any urban planning project.
It is also the basis for intelligent urban planning context handling when
implementing actual construction projects.
B a s i c s books on urban planning provide a basic grounding and
TheKJIHGFEDCBA

various practical
architecture.

working methods for students

Supplementing

B a s ic s

tion to individual urban structural

U rban

of urban planning

B u ild in g

B lo c k s ,

and

an introduc-

elements, the subject of this book is

the analysis of existing urban structures

and their characteristics.

The

emphasis is on explaining how to prepare and implement analyses of all
urban factors, deal with sources of data and information and work in a
specific area of analysis. The author presents
his own practical experience, demonstrates

methods of analysis from

analysis result documentation

types and reviews possible courses of action based on these results.
U rban

A n a ly s is

B a s ic s

is a valuable combination of methodical approaches and

practical knowledge that students will find useful both academically and
professionally.
Bert Bielefeld
Editor

7

IN T R O D U C T IO N

U rban

a n a ly s is

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Urban planning

and
urban

zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLK

p la n n in g

always demands analysis of the area involved. This

provides the background knowledge and rationale for any urban planning
measure. Urban analysis, the study of existing urban spaces, is the preliminary stage of urban planning in any existing city.
Urban planning has increasingly less to do with quantitative

growth

and more to do with caring for and adapting existing urban structures,
especially in Europe. This change in orientation requires intensive study of
existing urban structures. The fundamental

question, however, is whether

existing cities' future development can actually be planned, and whether
this kind of development can be determined in advance by analyzing the
initial conditions. ) Fig.
Urban planning
spaces by measuring

I

has been determining
particular

future demands

on urban

values for a long time. This approachnmlkjihgfedc

)
9

lu tunstf'i

d

with the coming of the 20th century. During the Industrial

Revolution, many cities experienced almost totally unplanned expansion.
Experts noted their functional

deficiencies. The planning approach de-

veloped as a response was particularly

strongly represented in the 1960s,

as the emergence of computers enabled extensive data processing

and

made advance planning of urban development with precision look like
a realizable goal. The role of the urban planner also changed, with the
unaccountable

master builder becoming a rational engineer who would

diagnose the city and then prescribe developmental planning measures.
However, all efforts to precisely predetermine

a city's development failed.

Today, urban development processes are considered far too complex and
contradictory to be understood and extrapolated in their entirety. Despite
this realization,

urban planning and urban analysis remain indispens-

able, but they are not used to plan every detail of urban development.
Instead, they provide a basis for integrating

diverse individual develop-

ments into a single planning scheme. With urban planning increasingly
focusing on existing infrastructure,

urban analysis has a key role. Before

a need for action can be discovered and appropriate
ures can be put in place, existing urban structures

stabilization

meas-

must be analyzed. Ur-

ban analysis does not precede urban planning in a fixed, self-contained
process; rather, they are both elements in a continuous process. >
Urban

analysis

Fig. 2

Urban analysis describes or analyses particular factors relevant to
urban planning, in whole cities or in smaller areas within cities. Aesthetic,
spatial. social or economic factors are recorded and represented
study, which goes on to describe the interactions

in the

between these effects

- which, however, cannot be assessed or described in full because the city
and its users interact in a reciprocal system. Urban analysis is therefore
confined to abstract, model interpretations
areas. >

of the city or its individual

Fig. 3

Cities are generally perceived in a very different way by different
parties. Factors like the emotional ties of residents to their neighborhood
or their place in the local society of a certain neighborhood are incomprehensible to outsiders. Conversely, faults in urban design etc. may be
of only minor importance to local residents. The urban planning process
regularly involves serious conflict between urban planners and residents
or users of the city due to their different perceptions and evaluations of a
city. Initial conflicts are unavoidable, but if handled properly they represent a chance to develop a deeper understanding

of the situation within

the space under observation, spurring residents to look beyond the context
of their own neighborhood and giving urban planners an insight into that
neighborhood's social mechanisms. > Fig. 4

10

11nml

THEORETICAL

PRINCIPLES

A city can be represented

OF URBAN

ANALYSIS

as a tangible, perceptible spatial phenom-

enon, without precisely analyzing or describing its causative factors. Conversely, a city can be seen as the field of activity for scientifically measurable factors, without reference to its spatial dimension. Spatial analyses
generally avoid both of these extreme approaches,
city as an interaction

instead

describing

a

of different effects, but all with spatial implications.

The main reference point is usually the perceptible

city - urban analysis

cannot exist without reference to tangible, perceptible phenomena.

AESTHETIC OBSERVATION:THE VISIBLE CITY
A major part of urban analysis is the visual perception of a city; i.e.
the recording and interpretation

of visually perceived urban structures.

We generally perceive a city without recognizing the mechanisms
ception, yet the task of describing

a city is inseparable

of per-

from the act of

perceiving it.
Perception is a learned communication process. In this context, perception means the understanding

of visual information. We can only un-

derstand phenomena that we have already perceived. This involves generalizing from one or more recurring characteristics,

previously learned by

and therefore known to the viewer. Individual characteristics
change over time, but the general characteristics

may vary or

must remain constant for

the phenomenon to be recognized.
Communication structures
Urban analysis may be part of a formal planning process. In the con-

our environment. When we accept names

for things, we are unconsciously using a pattern to perceive our surround-

text of public development programs or urban renovation or renewal, an

ings. This is also a condition for being able to perceive. In this sense, the

urban analysis may be implemented

human sensory organs do not transport

according to specific requirements.

In general, however, the implementation

of an urban analysis is not stand-

ardized; i.e. its extent and degree of detail must be decided based on the

all stimuli to the brain. Instead,

like a filter, they classify, selecting from the full range of available sensory
stimuli in a data-compression

operation.

individual situation.

\\Note:
Resthetics
tion)

2

nmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUT

(from the Greek c i s t hes i s : percep-

originally

meant the study

Resthetics

in the

m e c h a n is m s

of

scientific

hum an

of beauty.

sense

includes

all

aZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA

p e r c e p t io n .

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.........•!
:

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-

The process of determining names and terms is not learned discretely,
but is inscribed into a culture in the form of language and perpetuated
by the collective memory. The structure
language. Language-based

of our perception is based upon

categories determine the differences (a selec-

tion process) and connections

(a construction

process) that we perceive,

evaluate and interpret in our surroundings. This is largely an unconscious
process, making it difficult for us to believe that different people perceive
their surroundings

differently, depending on their experience and habits.

> Fig. 5

Many of the terms we use group together very different urban fea-

It follows that we recognize only those phenomena that can be ab-

tures into a single category. This is like the way we perceive a human face.

stracted, based on what we already know. Or, to put it another way, we

Rather than remembering

perceive only the phenomena we expect. As perception is a cultural phe-

all the individual features, what we notice is

the overall impression created by the combination of those features. In a

nomenon, urban structures

similar way, when we perceive a city, we compare it to many patterns with

with different cultural backgrounds.

which we are familiar. We expect a town square, a historical

may be perceived very differently by people

church or

town hall in the center of a city, for instance. In actual fact, this cognitive

Urban analysis may confirm familiar perception patterns by under-

pattern is an idealized composite seldom seen in reality, where town cen-

scoring certain phenomena as being particularly

ters are made up of many different phenomena, but we use our standard,

also help people to recognize new phenomena or connections by explaining

familiar pattern to pick up on those parts of the overall composition that

the rules governing perception.

conform to the schema. Those parts that do not fit the pattern

typical. However, it can

are sup-

pressed by the perception process. If these elements form the dominant
impression, then we do not perceive the city center, for instance, as being
a city center. >

Figs 6 and 7

15

Fig.8:
SCience
explains
perception.

SCIENTIFIC OBSERVATION:THE INVISIBLE CITY
A host of individual
perception

phenomena

interact

phenomena

the

structure

of

Morphological description
Urban morphology describes the spatial characteristics

of city struc-

tures and explains the conditions and causes behind them, including, for

as a phenomenon. The smaller the area under consideration

instance, the cultural, political or topographic context. Urban morphology,

is, the more

precisely it can be described. Scientists use this method to explain phe-

therefore, often follows a cause-and-effect

nomena that lie outside the structure

stances creating specific spatial structures.

of perception or are not perceptible

pattern, with particular

of a district can be traced back to demo-

Urban morphology

involves intensive

ground plans, i.e. the distribution

study

of historical

based on a fundamental

> Fig. 8
perceptible.nmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA

organic cities. Other criteria include the density and distribution
buildings, the situation

Scientific urban analysis is based on assessing and interpreting
fined values. The resulting measurements
paring them with measurements

are usually interpreted

distinction between planned and non-planned

or

of the

and hierarchy of streets and squares, the propor-

tion of open spaces to built-up

areas, and the placement

of significant

by com-

from other survey areas or timeframes.

such as the age or employment status of the popula-

tion, is a typical example. The interaction
space cannot be scientifically

of all active values in an urban

investigated.

Individual

can be described precisely, as exact measurements
are available.

de-

urban

of streets and building plots, usually

graphic features of its population without these phenomena being tangibly

Analyzing statistics,

circum-

unites factors in an overall impression,

tors. For instance, characteristics

J6

outside

vidual aspects, with no claim to providing a general explanation of the city

science de constructs the overall impression to discover the individual fac-

volues

lie

INTEGRATIVE OBSERVATION:THE LOGICAL CITY

to produce our aesthetic

of a city. Scientific methods, on the other hand, analyze indi-

by the senses. While perception

Defined

that

aspects, however,

and comparative values

\ \ Note:
Morphology

is the

Urbon morphology
and residential
formation.

science
describes

estates

of shapes

)

ond forms.

the form of cities
and their

processes

of

17

around

around

1600

around

1750

1900

buildings in the city's ground plan. Individual structural features are often

Analysis of building style
Analysis of building style compares the formal composition of build-

studied, including:

ings and urban structures

from different eras (historical styles). regions

_ Development structure: individual buildings, block buildings and

(regional styles). or cultural movements. In rare cases, individual archi-

rows
_ Access structure: streets, commons, squares and bridges

tects or municipal building officers originate a style that characterizes

_ Open space structure: open space and bodies of water

than being urban space's primary shaping force it is an intellectual. formal

a

city. Style is always created by the culturally active minority, so that rather
expression of traditional

building experience.

While individual buildings have a comparatively short lifespan, the
ground plans of cities are generally very slow to change. Street plots in
particular

possess

great inertia. Historical

cities therefore contain the

traces of many different eras. While street plans often date from the found-

The study of style does not necessarily

explain the cause of each

style. Even so, particular worldviews or construction technologies can help
to elucidate a style, giving the subject applications beyond "decoration".

ing of the city, most buildings will have been replaced or modified many
times, so that the remains of many different eras, all of which arose under
different circumstances,

Analyzing styles often helps us to work out the age of buildings or

are jumbled together within a city. This means

urban structures. Not every era, however, has its own distinctive style. Of-

that morphological urban analysis may provide many explanations within

ten, several different styles were used simultaneously, or there were long

a single city. ) Fig.

transitional

9

phases between stylistic eras. Determining style and date of

origin is often made more difficult by the redesign of historical buildings
and changes to the city's ground plan, so that stylistic analysis often relies
on detailed historical analysis. ) Fig.

\ \ Note:
Rnolysis
lo g ic
tio n s

Analysis of functional patterns
aZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
Most methods of analysis describe
o f a n a r e a SRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
b y in v e s tig a tin g
th e c o n d ian d cau ses
o f its
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . nmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA quence of other circumstances,
reasoning
of urbon

morphology

con reveol

the

or cultural conditions

III

10

urban structures

as a conse-

that social, climatic, economic

bring about particular

spatial urban structures.

19

spatial structure, causing misunderstandings

that produce social tensions.

Recognizing functional patterns requires intensive study of the space and
its use.aZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA

S p a tia l

experience

and emotional attachment

Physical and spatial sensations
ences, making them fundamental

are both bodily and social experi-

to all human experience. All spatial

experiences refer back to these fundamental

experiences. Buildings are

associated with people, and ensembles of buildings represent the relationships of people with each other. Associations are stored as experiences,
and awaken positive or negative feelings.
Spatial structures
situations

~

are perceived in an emotional context, and spatial

are associated with lifestyle. A place may be remembered, for

instance, because of a particularly

pleasant

event, with an unimposing

place remaining in the memory because a future life partner was seen there
Analysis of functional

patterns

assumes that this works both ways: as

well as social and cultural activities creating spatial structures,
structures

have implications for social and cultural behavior. One might

say that spatial structures

for the first time.

spatial

act as a catalyst for the social activities of the

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Many of these emotional links are based on individual experience,

Individual
and collective
experiences

and therefore play no part in urban analysis. However, spatial situations

urban space's users.

can also stir emotions in society at large or in certain social groups. In
some cases, a spatial situation can even produce opposite emotions in two

:eadability
.f spatial
_ tr u c tu r e s

We are not born knowing the social behavior appropriate

to given

different social groups, thereby creating conflicts.

spatial structures. It is learned, like a language, and is tied to a cultural
context. Any changes to spatial structures
readability

if

the relationship

must therefore preserve their

Such places usually stand out from their surroundings.
they are either particularly

between place and behavior is not to be

In general

exposed places, like viewing platforms,

or

boundaries between two very different spatial structures, like riverbanks.

disrupted.

Such locations are often spatially marked, creating a symbolic emphasis.
In urban analysis, emotionally significant places must be recognized and

One of the key functional pattern schemas of a city designates public

documented. ) Fig.

and private spaces. A varied repertoire of spatial structural characteristics

13

encodes public or private city space. For instance, a square with a central

-9

20

monument encircled by shops declares itself to be public. ) Figs
The association between social behavior patterns
tial structures

11 and 12

and certain spa-

are very long-lived, but even so, new functional patterns

can arise. New functional patterns usually arise by analogy with already
familiar systems.KJIHGFEDCBA

p

p

\ \ Example:

\\ Example:

This
of

Functional patterns may be tied to particular

system

b u ild in g s ,

social or cultural mi-

room s

to people
are

full

also

w it h

using

a

iors.

class or cultural group. As a consequence, members of different groups

code is socially

Violating

th e

to the ground

f u r n is h in g s

s p e c if ic

p u rp ose

them for the

of codes

lieus, so that spatial codes can only be read by members of a certain social
may have a different idea of the social behavior appropriate

applies

m a k in g

that

the

link

rules

first

and

plans

of

lo c a t io n s

r e a d a b le

time.

to certain
by disregarding

even

Memorials

relating

to the two World Wars can

produce

very

c o n tr a d ic to r y

b ecau se

th e y

arou se

b o th

e m o tio n s
sorrow

and

in

p e o p le ,

g u ilt .

UTSRQPONMLKJ

Rooms
behavthis

prohibited.

to a certain

21

:22

IM P L E M E N T A T IO N

zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONML

PREPARATION AND PLANNING PHASES
In theory, a surveyed area contains endless volumes of information,
allowing a corresponding

amount of analysis to be done. In practice, cer-

tain systems have become established

within which analysis takes place.

These systems can be divided up under the headings history, housing ge> Chapter Methods of analysis
ography, and social structure.nmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA

Defining the subject matter
There are two reasons for conducting an urban analysis:
_ To reveal the overall picture: This means using urban analysis to
obtain an overall picture of the area of investigation
urban area. Observed mistakes

or of a whole

often trigger an urban analysis.

These may include mass vacancy, poor building maintenance

or

major population fluctuations. The aim of the urban analysis is to
replace suspicion with a definite diagnosis. In this case, several
methods will be used on the area under investigation.
_ To provide an answer to a specific issue: This means analyzing speMicro and macro levels

cific features - for instance, the condition of existing residential

Cities are perceived on different levels. People usually have detailed
knowledge of the area surrounding
incorporate

buildings, the population's

their home. In parallel with this, they

the area into wider contexts without

compatibility

reference to detailed

tural elements such as green corridors, the course of rivers or major traffic
location is therefore integrated

into spatial structures

on both the micro

and the macro levels. Neither of these levels is autonomous. Instead, the
two different levels overlap within any specific location.

building project. In this case, the

evaluation must provide conclusions on the initial question.

knowledge of these wider surroundings. This network is oriented on strucroutes. Conspicuous places provide points of reference within it. Every

social situation, or the urban planning

of a prospective

Urban analyses

are not formal or standardized

procedures.

makes defining the subject matter before beginning an analysis

This
indis-

pensable. It is important to choose the right methods of analysis based on
the reason for conducting the analysis. Failing to appropriately

define the

\\Note:
Housing geography

describes

str u c tu r e

in te r n a l

area

a n d th e

under

e le m e n ts
str u c tu r e ,
c o n s t r u c t io n

in v e s t ig a t io n .

ore

th e

open
and

both the spatial
fu n c tio n s
The

fu n c tio n a l
sp ace

and

m ost

of

str u c tu r e ,
green

d e v e lo p m e n t

th e

im p o r t a n t

str u c tu r e ,

access
and

str u c tu r e .

23aZYXW

FIg

16:

When analyzIng
the area
tIon, nearby areas must
Into account.

of InvestIgaalso be taken

subject matter can lead either to inadequate results or to collecting infor-

Scale and degree of detail depend on how far the area under investi-

mation that is of no use to the urban analysis. A rough impression of the

gation extends; i.e. the larger the scale, the smaller the area of investiga-

situation within the area of analysis is therefore needed before the subject

tion. However, no planning area is autonomous. It will have many connections and reciprocal relationships with the surrounding areas, the city as a

matter can be established.

whole, and even the wider region. Any urban analysis therefore has to look
beyond the area under investigation
into the city's structure. ) Figs

Scale and spatial demarcation

and take into account its integration

16-18

Any information gained from an analysis is subject to scale. For instance, information relating to individual buildings may be relevant to a
single building plot but useless for analyzing the whole city. It is not that

Continuation

small-scale analysis will always give an inaccurate picture of the area of

Continuing the analysis involves building on the investigation at par-

and monitoring

investigation; it is simply that to provide useful results it must be seen in

ticular intervals. Continuations may involve the same methods of analysis,

the wider city context. An overload of too much large-area information - a

or expand on or modify them. This can lead to the analyzed facts experienc-

"data graveyard" - can distort findings on the area's relationship

ing a change in emphasis.

with the

wider context. Compressing the data obtained into key points is an important part of urban analysis.
The smallest unit for a whole-city urban analysis is a building plot
or neighborhood
characteristics

(scale 1:20,000 to 1:5000). This means that any analyzed

must be seen in relation to this spatial area. Where the area

under investigation is a single neighborhood, the smallest units are gener-

\\Note:

\\ Note:
In this

case,

"building

plot"

describes

a

An area

of investigation'

housing development enclosed by roods or other

situation

structural

case of nearby

elements.

instance

5

recreational

- but it may also

create

in the case of an industrial

teristics generally include a higher degree of detail. ) Figs

fumes near a residential

:4zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA

integration

impact
facilities,

ally buildings and plots. Analyses involving a survey of only a few charac14 and 15

spatial

may have a positive

- in the
for

conflicts,

concern

as

emitting

area.

25

26

that, when preparing

and setting an agenda for an urban analysis, the

factors analyzed and the expertise needed must be clearly set out. In practice this involves setting up a working team or dividing the work between
public planning authorities

and specialist planners. Urban planners, ar-

chitects and housing geographers usually supervise the main stages of an
urban analysis, investigating
tion structures.

land use, transport, housing and construc-

Specialized analysis may require, for instance, transport

system planners or historians. Open space and ecological issues are generally handled by open space planners or landscape architects. Biologists,
meteorologists

and geographers

make specialized contributions

on the

open space and ecological situation. If analyzing the social structure necessitates extensive surveys or statistical work, social scientists will have

to be included. Participation initiatives will require moderators.aZYXWVUTSRQ

O B T A IN IN G

AND

P R O C E S S IN G

DATA

Urban analysis involves obtaining extensive amounts of data. Permission to access these materials must be agreed or arranged as early as
Monitoring in an urban analysis context means long-term observa-

the availability and capability of the relevant authority will permit.

tion of the area under investigation, usually by surveying a constant set
Urban analysis

of values at regular intervals, comparing the results, and comparing with
other areas of investigation,

or comparing several areas of investigation

involves collecting and processing

very different

form of data:

with regard to certain values. Typical surveyed values include the number
of inhabitants

and the demographic and social population

Data in paper form, such as printed reports and plans

characteris-

Digital data, such as planning documents, text and image files

tics.

_ Information gained from personally visiting the site>

Chapter Working

in th e a r e a u n d e r a n a ly s is

W o r k in g w ith

o th e r

s p e c ia lis t

_ Information from conversations with third parties>

p la n n e r s

It is often impossible for a single specialist planner to conduct an ur-

Chapter Working

in th e a r e a u n d e r a n a ly s is

ban analysis, as many aspects require specialized knowledge. This means

\\Note:
So

th a t

can

demands clearly
and working
uses
the

\\ Tip:

\\ Tip:
r e s u lt s

be

establish

methods.
areas

m o n it o r in g

assessment

It

only standardized
surveyed

com pared,

therefore
values.

should

also

W h e n e s t a b lis h in g

factors

research

generally
Comparability
be checked.

should

redundancy.
of

UTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA

sequence
established,
specialist
a n o th e r 's

a w o r k in g

be clearly

If necessary,

of the analysis
as the results
planner

group,

areas

demarcated

of

to ovoid

the chronological
should

b e g in n in g

be established
fo r

p r o v id in g

materials,

be firmly

produced

B e fo r e

an

urban

whether
or

a n a ly s is ,

there

p r e p a r in g

and who should

will
n ecessary

be liable

it

s h o u ld

be any charge
d a ta

for

this.

by one

may have implications

for

e v a lu a tio n ,

27

--~-~~.,,-~~-~----------------------------

If an urban analysis is to be published, someone must check the copyright status of the materials used, which should be identified in the publication. Data protection laws apply to the publication of personal data. The
data protection authorities

responsible should be contacted so that rules

for dealing with these materials can be agreed.

Historical information
Historical maps, publications

on the city's past and chronicles are

important reference works for a historical analysis. It is generally a good
idea to talk to city archives and libraries. In smaller cities, these services
are often provided by honorary appointees. They will however only provide a collection of historical materials such as photos and local publications, rather than scientifically

prepared information. The evaluation of

such historical raw materials is very labor-intensive,

and is usually only

required in the case of a scientific investigation.

Maps as a basis

digital data grids. To some extent, groups of objects or geographic features

Scale maps are an essential practical

tool in any urban analysis.

>nmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
@
can be provided as layers, each printed with one set of data. > I'ig. 19

Maps may provide information or be a medium for contextualizing the different results of analysis. There are no national or international

standards

Reol

estote

The real estate map is used as a basis for the geodata, enabling nu-

mop

for maps as a basis for urban analysis, meaning that the availability and

merous connections with other specialist data. The real estate map is the

technical quality of the materials have to be checked at the beginning of

visual part of the land register, showing the ownership of all parcels of

the analysis. Because they may use different projections, not all sets of

land.

maps are compatible. This means that they cannot always be used within
the same document. Maps for urban analysis use are usually produced and
distributed by state bodies.
A topographical

Topogrophicol
mop

The real estate map shows spatial and topographical features as well
as plots of land. Its inclusion of extensive information on objects and land

map shows geographical features and spatial ob-

plots makes the real estate map particularly

interesting to urban analysts.

Real estate maps note particular

of plots and objects, e.g. land

attributes

jects on the earth's surface. The contour lines in particular make this kind

use or number of stories in buildings. Identical or similar objects are or-

of map useful for an urban analysis ..Scales of between 1:5000 and 1:50,000

ganized using the precise definitions in an object catalogue. These are ar-

are used for urban analysis purposes. Maps are generally available as

ranged into separate layers, sorting the map's content by subject. The real
estate map is also part of the land register map information system - i.e.
the database contains extensive data on the area in addition to the real
estate map's visual information. >

\\Note:
If

aZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
\\Note:

th e

area

objects

records

in v e s tig a tio n

will

usually

(buildings

ground-level

r e s p o n s ib le

be able

a n d e x p e r ie n c e .

The display

c o n ta in s

significonce

or listed

a u th o r itie s

tures

28

under

of cultural

locations)
th e n

Fig. 20

fo r

or

features,
lis te d

to provide

str u c -

detailed

it

easily

style
accessible

can therefore
wi thout

of a topographical
to the general

be included

modifying

in public

the disploy.

map makes
public.

It

projects

UTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA

Real estate maps are kept digitally by land registry offices and can
be edited by others if converted into vector files. Before referring to the
real estate map, it should be ascertained what object and plot-related information it can provide. Conversely, it may be necessary to narrow down
a large amount of available data.

29

The usual file formats for transfer into a CAD(Computer Aided Design) system are *.DXF (Drawing Interchange Format) or *.DWG(Drawing,
a file format from the Autodesk product range). If files from the land registry information

system are to be transferred,

other data formats must

be used.
e r ia l

zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
Aerial photographs are available taken vertically or at an angle.

hotogroph

distorted

true to scale vertical images - called orthophotos

used, as these are comparable to other map materials

Non-

- are often

and can therefore

be used in combination with them. Together with real estate maps, aerial
photographs

can provide important information on object coordinates. In

particular, this helps to pinpoint green infrastructure.
are also an effective way of illustrating

Aerial photographs

analysis results because they can

> Fig. 21
be easily understood by lay people.nmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA

etoiled

Depending on the area of investigation,

mops

quire large-scale

an urban analysis may recommonest providers of data records are public bodies, but private con-

detailed maps. For instance, utility companies will be

cerns are increasingly

able to provide maps showing underground supply lines.

providing spatial data records. One's own survey

results can be incorporated
Geoinformation systems (GIS systems) are used to manage and vi-

e o in fo r m a tio n
y ste m s

:0

> @

records. >

sualize spatial data. Many evaluations can be made based on them. With
GIS systems, the emphasis is generally on storing extensive bodies of digi-

Field

Field computers

computers

through evaluation rather than expressing information in maps. The refer-

location by clicking on a touchscreen showing a map or by matching with

ence values for these connections are spatial features, which are recorded

coordinates calculated by an integrated

graphically in geometric form - as with a CADsystem. These drawings are

receiver. A GIS system evaluates the submitted data. > Fig.
Existing plans

prior research. The availability

of compatible sets of data is very impor-

formatting, necessitating

set out regulations

\\Note:

of data. The

it

moy be

(extrocts)

e sta te
0

m ap covers

a la r g e

good ideo to exchonge
before

submitting

0

test

finol

area,

doto
set

of

R eal

e sta te

limited

m aps are

relevonce

extensively
b e u sed

have often been previously subjected to
must be evaluated in the light of

and of other information.

Formal planning

works

on, for instance, the type and extent of land use for

\\Note:

\ \ Note:
real

23

analyses

planning and analysis. These materials
certain restrictions,

manual inputting

and

Areas under investigation

tant. Data transfers from other systems can lead to data being lost during
time-consuming

GPS (Global Positioning System)

map.

Conducting an urban analysis using a GIS system requires extensive

th e

survey results to be collated

digitally onsite. The results being entered can be assigned to the correct

usually based on standard maps such as the topographical

If

allow standardized

and making connections between them

tal data in the form of databanks

doto.

into the GIS system as well as external data

Fig. 22

to

revised
illu s tr a te

te c h n ic a l

to loy people.
grophicolly
a n a ly s is

m a p s w ith

They must be
before
r e s u lts .

they con

The use of GIS systems
observotion

(monitoring)

in te r e s tin g ,

up-to-dote
easy

to

as

sets
c r e a te

th e

for

long-term

is

in c lu s io n

of doto

of

mokes it

n e w e v a lu a tio n s

oreo

porticulorly
th e

m ost

relotively

and

e v a lu a tiv e

mops.

31

;!lata

---------------------------------------

construction,
roundings

the situation

of any feature for which the immediate

must be kept clear, or the extent of flood-risk

times specialist

assessments

are available, analyzing particularly

portant factors in the area of investigation

sur-

areas. Some-

and its surroundings.

imThese

include:

evaluation relevant to the area of investigation, a new census area has to
be marked out.

_ Ecological specialist

articles containing information

valuable green infrastructure

>Chapter

on existing

Analysis of open space and green

aZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
This demarcation

must be done by administrative

cause external experts do not have access to data on residents. In order

Sound protection reports dealing with noise pollution - existing or

to satisfy data protection requirements,

anticipated in connection with planned projects

small-area picture can be provided only after extensive agreements have

Transport reports analyzing existing traffic pressures and the capacity of existing transport facilities, networks and systems>
te r A n a ly s is o f tr a n s p o r t

) C h a p te r A n a ly s is

data sufficient for building up a

been reached between urban analysts and the authorities responsible.

Chap-

When analyzing the population structure, it is particularly

str u c tu r e

Retail reports analyzing the retail structures

of the survey area

useful to

supplement surveys restricted to specific reference dates with studies of
developments over time, and compare them with other survey areas, mak-

o f la n d u s e s tr u c tu r e

ing it essential to have access to suitable comparative data.
Any relevant information from the available reports will be incorporated into the urban analysis. Its interactions

with other factors and its

implications for future urban planning will be investigated. Depending on
its importance, this information will be represented in a scale map.
and

s ta tis tic s

@

@

on

In general. administrative authorities are required to carry out regu\ \ Note:
cr e snmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
i den t s

32

departments, be-

str u c tu r e

lar analyses of the population structure. This involves analyzing the whole
population of districts or statistical
The area of investigation

survey areas under certain headings.

for an urban analysis is generally not identi-

cal with any of these statistical

survey areas, making the possibilities

for applying the data to a specific investigation

In
are

\ \ Note:

p r a c tic e ,

a ll

r e q u e ste d

the early

e x is tin g

fr o m

stages

planning

texts

Internet

(see

th e

p la n s
r e le v a n t

of an urban

analysis.

can be downloaded
Fig.

and

a n a ly s e s

a u th o r itie s

Many

from the

The
in

te r m

area

fo r

as

th e

of

hom es

" cen su s
w h ic h

overage
can

area"

age
be

d e s c r ib e s

p a r tic u la r
of

a

c o n t in u o u s

c h a r a c te r is tic s

r e s id e n t s

or

th e

su ch
num ber

a s s ig n e d .

24).

area limited. To make an

33zyxwvu

WORKING

IN THE AREA

UNDER

ANALYSIS

Taking an inventoryaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
i n the field
Field work in the area of investigation is an essential part of urban
analysis. Most analysis results can only be obtained by recording the existing situation on-site. Spatial qualities and atmospheric impressions

only

become apparent to an urban analyst visiting the area of investigation. It"
may be necessary to view the area at different times of day, or on different
days of the week.
You will need to have suitable documents prepared for textually and
graphically recording the information gained from the site visit. The volume of information recorded and the nature of the spaces involved will
vary depending on the dimensions

and degree of detail of the analysis.

The documents must be appropriate

to the volume of information and the

spatial relationships

involved. Unsuitable documents with excessive notes

can turn the subsequent

evaluation into a labor-intensive

piece of detec-

> Fig. 25
tive work.nmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA

Parties to the onsite visit will generally evaluate their own notes.
More extensive surveys, however, involve assembling an editing team. In
this case, a standard way of listing analysis results must be agreed upon
to preclude subsequent
are particularly

misunderstandings.

Standardized

questionnaires

suited to this.

Topographic or real estate maps are used to record the onsite visit.
Different scales are used depending on the dimensions and degree of detail

_ For recording housing geography features, real estate maps with a
scale of 1:1000 are generally used. When preparing these maps, any
layers that are not relevant to the site visit should be left out.

of the analysis:
_ For analyzing the urban integration situation, topographical maps
or aerial photographs

with a scale of between 1:5000 and 1:20,000

are suitable.

_ For recording plot or building level data, real estate maps with a
scale of 1:500 are used. Larger-scale maps tend to result in paper
formats that are too large to handle easily in the field. It may be
a good idea to combine the map and the survey sheet, with the
map allowing individual objects to be pinpointed and the survey
sheet allowing analysis results to be listed. The survey sheet will
be created as a standardized

questionnaire,

to prevent any survey

criteria from being overlooked during the inventory. >

Cameras are generally used to document the area of investigation. It

\\ Tip:
To

prevent

seq u en t

any

r e s u lt

porticularly
in v o l

in fo r m a tio n

e v a lu a tio n ,

preceded
m ay

Fig. 26

th e

by thorough
in

gaps
s ite

v is it

preparation.

tim e -c o n s u m in g

if

in

long traveling

th e
m u st

su b be

Such an error

e x tr a

research ,

distances

is often a good idea to note the places where photos were taken on a map,
to allow the photographs

to be put in a spatial context during subsequent

analysis.

ore

ved.

:4UTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA

35zyxwvu

Citizen participation,

contact with local operators

Residents have extensive detailed knowledge of their own neighborhood. Others active in the area, such as business

people and those who

to evaluate the results. Mass-mailed questionnaires

generally have a low

response rate. They do not provide a representative
population structure either.

cross section of the

run local initiatives, will also have knowledge of local conditions and how
they affect people. These sources of information should be included in any
analysis.

aZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
Conducting several specialist consultations

Specialist
tat ions

con su l

location-specific

time. Specialist consultations
Regulated contact with residents can be achieved using a series of

allows a large body of

specialist knowledge to be gathered in a relatively short
are discussion groups focusing on specific

subjects, with specialists in the relevant field invited to attend. Participants

methods. This is useful for assessing the impact on people within the area

generally include specialist representatives

of investigation

plus those active in the area under discussion. These may be people work-

of all the factors and conflicts involved, rather than for

gaining detailed information on the locality.

from the relevant authorities

ing for welfare organizations, voluntary workers or representatives
cal entrepreneurship.UTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA

of lo-

A residents' meeting is a frequently used method of citizen participanmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA

e s i d en t s '
e et

i nq

tion, usually with little preparation. In practice, residents' meetings where
no specific action is discussed have a low perceived level of impact on
the residents and are therefore not well attended. Organizing a residents'
meeting is therefore only recommended where both specific measures and
general plans of action are to be discussed. It is also a good idea to present
residents with the first urban analysis evaluations, to provide an object
and structure for the subsequent

discussion. As some residents will avoid

the public exposure of meetings, this method will not produce a representative sample of residents. The meeting place chosen should always have
a low associated inhibition level - i.e. should be within the investigated
area.
,dividuol
...Jblic
o ns u l tat ion

Preparing,

carrying out and evaluating

sultation is very time-consuming,

an individual

urban analyses that require an extensive social structure
vidual consultations

public con-

and they are therefore only included in
analysis. Indi-

and their evaluation require the assistance

of social

scientists.
Individual consultations
or standardized

may take the form of narrative interviews

questionnaires.

Standardized

processes

make it easier

\ \ Tip:
A visit
in

to the site

sp o n ta n e o u s

m e e tin g s

s h o u ld

in q u ir ie s

m ay

will

c o n ta c ts
not
p r o v id e

be

generally
w ith
a v o id e d

u se fu l

result

r e s id e n ts .
-

Such

c a r e fu l

in fo r m a tio n .

37

::38 GFEDCBA

M ETHODS

OF

A N A L Y S IS

zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA

Urban analysis of a particular

area may include investigations of one

or more issues, e.g. different land uses and transport

organization in the

area of investigation. As already stated, these sectoral analyses are simply
abstract, partial representations

of the reality. In practice, however, they

simplify the analysis process, as the complex interplay of all values cannot
be recorded or presented. At the same time, any urban analysis should note
as many interactions between these sectoral analyses as possible. Put simply, urban analyses begin by dismantling the area under investigation like
a motor, and then use the knowledge of the individual parts thus gained
plus their interactions

to put it back together again.

Urban analysis is not formally regulated, and so there are unlimited
ways of carrying it out. For this reason, only the sectoral analysis types
most commonly used in practical town planning are included here.

HISTORICAL ANALYSIS
Historical

analysis inquires

into the causative events for the cre-

Whether the area of investigation will be analyzed as a whole or on

Recording
individual

the level of separate plots is generally decided by the number of historically

fe a tu r e s

ation and composition of the analyzed area, or significant influences on

significant buildings. In a plot-by-plot analysis, buildings are assessed in-

it. Events in recent history may therefore also be significant. Historical

. dividually, and any historically

relevant features documented. Buildings

analysis is not limited to identifying the stylistic roots of existing urban

are usually assessed according to a standardized

structures.

- if possible - assigned to various building types. Commonly used criteria

It records and interprets

events that had implications for the

spatial development or the area of investigation.nmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
> Figs 27 and 28

catalog of criteria, then

include the building's age, and the extent and state of preservation

of any

historical stylistic features. The next step is to mark these buildings on a
There are two possible fields of reference for a historical analysis:

map based on their features. This helps to ascertain the spatial distribution of different building types in real space and the number of groups of

_ The area of investigation

as a whole: This involves evaluating

which historical

events a