A Description Of Gender Found In John Mellington’s Play Riders To The Sea

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2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Literature

Literature is a term used to describe written or spoken material. Broadly speaking, “literature” is used to describe anything from creative writing to more technical or scientific works, but the term is most commonly used to refer to works of the creative imagination, including works of poetry, drama, fiction, and nonfiction. The word “literature” has different meanings depending on who is using it and in what context. It could be applied broadly to mean any symbolic record, encompassing everything from images and sculptures to letters. In a more narrow sense the term could mean only text composed of letters, or other examples of symbolic written languagwe. An even more narrow interpretation is that text have a physical form, such as on paper or some other portable form, to te exclusion of inscriptions or digital media.

Literature is a body of written works related by subject-matter (e.g. the literature of computing), by language or place of origin (e.g. Russian literature), or by prevailing cultural standards of merit. In this last sense, ‘literature’ is taken to include oral, dramatic, and broadcast compositions that may not have been published in written form but which have been (or deserve to be) preserved. Since the 19th century, the broader sense of literature as a totality of written or printed works has given way to more exclusive definitions based on criteria of imaginative, creative, or artistic value, usually related to a work’s absence of

factual or practical reference. Until the mid-20th century, many kinds of

non-fictional writing in philosophy, history, biography, criticism, topography, science, and politics were counted as literature; implicit in this broader usage is a

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definition of literature as that body of works which, deserves to be preserved as part of the current reproduction of meanings within a given culture. This sense seems more tenable than the later attempts to divide literature as creative, imaginative, fictional, or non-practical from factual writings or practically effective works of propaganda, rhetoric, or didactic writing.

According to Simon and Delyse Ryan in Wikipedia, literature is a road that is much travelled, though the point of arrival, if ever reached, is seldom satisfactory. Most attempted definitions are broad and vague, and they inevitably change overtime. In fact, the only thing that is certain about defining literature is that the definition will change. Concepts of what is literature change over time as well.

2.2 Play

Play is a literature composition that tells a story, usually of human conflict, by means of dialogue and action, to be performed by actors; play; now often specif, any play that is not a comedy. Not only that, a play is also a form of literature written by a playwright, usually consisting of dialogue between characters, intended for theatrical performance rather than just reading. A play or drama offers another classical literary form that has continued to revolve over the

years. During the 18th and 19th centuries, opera developed as a combination of

poetry, drama, and music. Nearly all drama took verse form until comparatively recently. A play is something to act out or do a performance. And drama is now commonly used to refer to a genre of film or television which is more serious than comedy.

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An older meaning of ‘drama’ was the spesific mode of fiction represented in performance. Drama is often combined with music and dance: the drama in opera is generally sung throughout; musicals generally include both spoken dialogue and songs; and some forms of drama have incidental music or musical accompaniment underscoring the dialogue. And drama is similar to it, its not acting out from something, but doing a play is drama.

2.3 Gender

Gender is often associated with gender (sex), whereas gender is different from sex. Gender is often understood as a gift from God or kodrat Ilahi, whereas gender is not solely so. In terminology, ‘gender’ can be defined as the cultural expectations of men and women (Lips, 1993: 4). Another definition of gender put forward by Elaine Showalter. According to him ‘gender’ is a distinction of men and women seen from the socio-cultural construction (Showalter, 1989: 3). Gender can also be used as an analytical concept that can be used to describe something (Umar, 1999: 9).

Of some of the definitions of the above can be understood that gender is a trait that is used as the basis for identifying the differences between men and women in terms of social conditions and Cultural Studies, values and behavior, mentality and emotions, as well as factors other nonbiologis. In general, sex is used to identify the differences in male and female anatomy in terms of biological, gender was more concentrated to the social, cultural, and other aspects nonbiologis. If the sex studies more emphasis on the development aspects of biological and shemical composition of the body of a male and female, then

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gender studies more emphasis on development aspects of a person’s masculinity and feminity.

History of gender differences between a man occurs through a very lengthy process and is formed by several reasons, such as socio-cultural conditions, religious condition of statehood. With this long process, the gender defference is often considered to be a provision ultimately God is as if the natural or biological nature can not be changed anymore. This is exactly what causes the onset of gender inequality in the society.

Gender has a significant position in one’s life and can determine the life experience that will be gone. Gender can determine a person’s access to education, work, and other public sectors. Gender can also determine the health, life ecpectancy, and a person’s freedom of movement. Clearly, gender will determine sexuality, relationships, and ability to make decisions and act autonomously. Finally, gender determines a person who many will be what it will be.

Gender is a social construction with important consequences in everybody life. Gender is constructed both socially through social interactions as well as biologically through chromosomes, brain structure, and hormonal differences. Gender refers to the social, psychological, and cultural attributes of masculinity and femininity that are based on the above biological distinctions. Gender pertains to the socially learned patterns of behaviour and the psychological or emotional expression or attitudes that distinguish males from females. Ideas about masculinity and feminity are culturally derived and pattern the ways in which males and females are treated from birth onward. Gender is an important factor in

10

shaping people’s self image and social identities. Gender is learned through the socializations process and thus is and achieved status.

Scott (1990:535) states that gender, which is defined as a social construction rather than an essential biological trait, comes in many forms: in languages that assign genders to nouns and pronouns; in what sociologist describe as “sex roles,” which divide and limit what persons of one sex or the other can do in private and public spheres; in efforts to recuperate the culture or traditions of women, as neglected and marginal when compared to those of gender.

Gender roles are sets of societal norms dictating what types of behaviours are generally considered acceptable, appropriate or desirable for a person based on their actual or perceived sex. These are usually centered around masculinity, although there are myriad exceptions and variations. The spesifics regarding these gendered expectations may vary substantially among cultures, write other characteristics may be common throughout a range of cultures.

There is ongoing debate as what extent gender roles and their variations are biologically determined, and to what extent they are socially constructed. Gender roles may be a means through which one may express their gender identity, but they may also be employed as a means of exerting social control, and individuals may experience negative social consequencesfor violating them.Vario us groups have led efforts to change aspects of prevailing gender roles that they believe are oppressive or inaccurate, most notably the feminist movement.

The terms was first coined by John Money in 1955 during the course of his study of intersex individuals to describe the manners in which these individuals

11

express their status as a male or female, in a situation where no clear biological assignment exists.

And gender is an important are of study in many disciplines, such as literary theory, drama studies, film theory, performance theory, contemporary art history, anthropology, sociology, psychology and psychoanalysis. These disciplines sometimes differ in their ap is aproaches to how and why they study gender. For instance in anthropology, sociology and psychology, gender is often studied as practice, whereas in cultural studies representations of gender are more often examined. Gender studies also a discipline in itself, an interdisciplinary are of study that incorporates methods and approaches from a wide range of disciplines.

2.4 Gender Equality

Gender equality is achieved when women and men enjoy the same rights and opportunities cross all sectors of society, including economic participation and decision-making, and when the different behaviors, aspirations and needs of women and men are equally valued and favored. From Wikipedia, gender equality is measured by looking at the representation of men and of women in a range of roles. A number of international comparative gender equality indices have been prepared and these offer a way to compare Ireland’s achievements with those of other countries. Each index looks at a distinct list of parameters and the choice of parameters affects `the outcome for each country. Gender equality and women’s empowerment are human rights that lie at the heart of development and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. Despite the progress that has been made, six out of ten of world’s peorest people are still women and girls, less

12

than 16 percent of the world’s parliamentarians are women, two thirds of all children shut outside the school gates are girls and, both in times of armed conflict and behind closed doors at home, women are still systematically subjected to violence. Rossi (1964: 261) states that:

The traditional conception of masculine and feminine are inappropriate to the kind of world we can live in during the second half of the twentieth century. An androgynous conception of sex role means that each sex will cultivate some of the characteristics usually associated with the other in traditional sex role difinition.

Rossi proposed that boys in socialized to be tender and expressive so they will later feel free express these equalities in their social relationships. He also recommends that girls be inculcated with achievement need, workmanship, and assertiveness so they will feel free to express these equalities in their adult life. This socialization strategy is assumed to ultimately enable both men and women to develop the full range of human equalities regardless of their gender. The movement towards gender equality, especially in Western countries, began with

the suffragette movement of the late- 19th century. Then there was a change in

relation to a woman’s property rights in marriage. This situation has begun to change in recent years. As more and more woman have entered the job market, husbands have begun to share responsibilities of home with their wives. It is also easy for a working wife to feel responsible for any problems her children might have. Whereas she may feel guilty for not staying at home, her husband is likely to assume that it is normal, and he will be take care their home.

For example, like a construction laborers. With the rise of economics that exist in Indonesia whatsoever should be done every human being, including

13

working women have participated in the building to be porters. That is what a woman can do to meet the needs of his family and himself.

Gender equality began to influence society since the 15th century. On the

European continent it started to effect society in 1602. In America, it is beginning to happen in 1774. Meanwhile, in Asia, it started in the latest of 19th century. In Indonesia, gender equality began to be known since the emancipation of women pioneered by RA. Kartini, in 1899.

There are also countries that have a history of a high level of gender equality in certain areas of life, but not in other aremas. An example is Finland which has offered very high opportinities to women in public/professional life, but has had a weak legal approach to the issue of violence against women, with the situation in this country having been called a paradox.

Gender equality is a achieved when people are able to access and enjoy the same rewards, resources and opportunities regardless of whether they are a woman or a man. Many countries worldwide, including Australia, have made significant progress towards gender equality in recent decades, particularly in areas such as education. However, women continue to earn less than men, are less likely to advance their careers as far as men, and are more likely to spend their final years in poverty. At the same time, some men find it more difficult to access family-friendly pilicies or flexible working arrangements than women.

The aim of gender equality in the workplace is to achieve broadly equal outcomes for women and men, not exactly the same outcome for all individuals.

14

To achieve this requires:

• Workplaces to provide equal remuneration for women and men for

work of equal or comparable value.

• The removal of barriers to the full and equal participation of women in

the workforce.

• Full and genuine access to all occupations and industries, including to

leadership roles for women and men.

• Elimination of discrimination on the basis of gender particularly in

relation to family and caring responsibilities for both women and men. Achieving gender equality is important for workplaces not only because it is ‘fair’ and ‘the right thing to do’, it is also vitally impotant to the bottom line of a business and to the productivity of our nation.

9

gender studies more emphasis on development aspects of a person’s masculinity and feminity.

History of gender differences between a man occurs through a very lengthy process and is formed by several reasons, such as socio-cultural conditions, religious condition of statehood. With this long process, the gender defference is often considered to be a provision ultimately God is as if the natural or biological nature can not be changed anymore. This is exactly what causes the onset of gender inequality in the society.

Gender has a significant position in one’s life and can determine the life experience that will be gone. Gender can determine a person’s access to education, work, and other public sectors. Gender can also determine the health, life ecpectancy, and a person’s freedom of movement. Clearly, gender will determine sexuality, relationships, and ability to make decisions and act autonomously. Finally, gender determines a person who many will be what it will be.

Gender is a social construction with important consequences in everybody life. Gender is constructed both socially through social interactions as well as biologically through chromosomes, brain structure, and hormonal differences. Gender refers to the social, psychological, and cultural attributes of masculinity and femininity that are based on the above biological distinctions. Gender pertains to the socially learned patterns of behaviour and the psychological or emotional expression or attitudes that distinguish males from females. Ideas about masculinity and feminity are culturally derived and pattern the ways in which males and females are treated from birth onward. Gender is an important factor in

10

shaping people’s self image and social identities. Gender is learned through the socializations process and thus is and achieved status.

Scott (1990:535) states that gender, which is defined as a social construction rather than an essential biological trait, comes in many forms: in languages that assign genders to nouns and pronouns; in what sociologist describe as “sex roles,” which divide and limit what persons of one sex or the other can do in private and public spheres; in efforts to recuperate the culture or traditions of women, as neglected and marginal when compared to those of gender.

Gender roles are sets of societal norms dictating what types of behaviours are generally considered acceptable, appropriate or desirable for a person based on their actual or perceived sex. These are usually centered around masculinity, although there are myriad exceptions and variations. The spesifics regarding these gendered expectations may vary substantially among cultures, write other characteristics may be common throughout a range of cultures.

There is ongoing debate as what extent gender roles and their variations are biologically determined, and to what extent they are socially constructed. Gender roles may be a means through which one may express their gender identity, but they may also be employed as a means of exerting social control, and individuals may experience negative social consequencesfor violating them.Vario us groups have led efforts to change aspects of prevailing gender roles that they believe are oppressive or inaccurate, most notably the feminist movement.

The terms was first coined by John Money in 1955 during the course of his study of intersex individuals to describe the manners in which these individuals

11

express their status as a male or female, in a situation where no clear biological assignment exists.

And gender is an important are of study in many disciplines, such as literary theory, drama studies, film theory, performance theory, contemporary art history, anthropology, sociology, psychology and psychoanalysis. These disciplines sometimes differ in their ap is aproaches to how and why they study gender. For instance in anthropology, sociology and psychology, gender is often studied as practice, whereas in cultural studies representations of gender are more often examined. Gender studies also a discipline in itself, an interdisciplinary are of study that incorporates methods and approaches from a wide range of disciplines.

2.4 Gender Equality

Gender equality is achieved when women and men enjoy the same rights and opportunities cross all sectors of society, including economic participation and decision-making, and when the different behaviors, aspirations and needs of women and men are equally valued and favored. From Wikipedia, gender equality is measured by looking at the representation of men and of women in a range of roles. A number of international comparative gender equality indices have been prepared and these offer a way to compare Ireland’s achievements with those of other countries. Each index looks at a distinct list of parameters and the choice of parameters affects `the outcome for each country. Gender equality and women’s empowerment are human rights that lie at the heart of development and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. Despite the progress that has been made, six out of ten of world’s peorest people are still women and girls, less

12

than 16 percent of the world’s parliamentarians are women, two thirds of all children shut outside the school gates are girls and, both in times of armed conflict and behind closed doors at home, women are still systematically subjected to violence. Rossi (1964: 261) states that:

The traditional conception of masculine and feminine are inappropriate to the kind of world we can live in during the second half of the twentieth century. An androgynous conception of sex role means that each sex will cultivate some of the characteristics usually associated with the other in traditional sex role difinition.

Rossi proposed that boys in socialized to be tender and expressive so they will later feel free express these equalities in their social relationships. He also recommends that girls be inculcated with achievement need, workmanship, and assertiveness so they will feel free to express these equalities in their adult life. This socialization strategy is assumed to ultimately enable both men and women to develop the full range of human equalities regardless of their gender. The movement towards gender equality, especially in Western countries, began with the suffragette movement of the late- 19th century. Then there was a change in relation to a woman’s property rights in marriage. This situation has begun to change in recent years. As more and more woman have entered the job market, husbands have begun to share responsibilities of home with their wives. It is also easy for a working wife to feel responsible for any problems her children might have. Whereas she may feel guilty for not staying at home, her husband is likely to assume that it is normal, and he will be take care their home.

For example, like a construction laborers. With the rise of economics that exist in Indonesia whatsoever should be done every human being, including

13

working women have participated in the building to be porters. That is what a woman can do to meet the needs of his family and himself.

Gender equality began to influence society since the 15th century. On the European continent it started to effect society in 1602. In America, it is beginning to happen in 1774. Meanwhile, in Asia, it started in the latest of 19th century. In Indonesia, gender equality began to be known since the emancipation of women pioneered by RA. Kartini, in 1899.

There are also countries that have a history of a high level of gender equality in certain areas of life, but not in other aremas. An example is Finland which has offered very high opportinities to women in public/professional life, but has had a weak legal approach to the issue of violence against women, with the situation in this country having been called a paradox.

Gender equality is a achieved when people are able to access and enjoy the same rewards, resources and opportunities regardless of whether they are a woman or a man. Many countries worldwide, including Australia, have made significant progress towards gender equality in recent decades, particularly in areas such as education. However, women continue to earn less than men, are less likely to advance their careers as far as men, and are more likely to spend their final years in poverty. At the same time, some men find it more difficult to access family-friendly pilicies or flexible working arrangements than women.

The aim of gender equality in the workplace is to achieve broadly equal outcomes for women and men, not exactly the same outcome for all individuals.

14 To achieve this requires:

• Workplaces to provide equal remuneration for women and men for work of equal or comparable value.

• The removal of barriers to the full and equal participation of women in the workforce.

• Full and genuine access to all occupations and industries, including to leadership roles for women and men.

• Elimination of discrimination on the basis of gender particularly in relation to family and caring responsibilities for both women and men. Achieving gender equality is important for workplaces not only because it is ‘fair’ and ‘the right thing to do’, it is also vitally impotant to the bottom line of a business and to the productivity of our nation.