TEACHERS’ TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH AUTISM (A Descriptive Study in Talenta Kids School for Autism in the Academic Year of 2013/2014) - Test Repository

TEACHERS’ TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH AUTISM
(A Descriptive Study in Talenta Kids School for Autism in the Academic Year of
2013/2014)
Graduating Paper
Submitted to the Board of Examiners as a Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirement for the Degree of Sarjana
Pendidikan Islam (S.Pd.I) in English Departement of Educational Faculty of
State Institute for Islamic Studies

Compiled by:
Lulu’atun Nasihah /113 10 126

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT (TBI)
INTERNATIONAL CLASS PROGRAM
STATE INSTITUTE FOR ISLAMIC STUDIES
(STAIN SALATIGA)
2014

i

MINISTRY OF RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS

SALATIGA STATE INSTITUTE FOR ISLAMIC STUDIES
(STAIN)
Jl.Tentara Pelajar 02 Phone(0298) 323706, 323433 Fax. 323433 Salatiga 50721
Website: www.stainsalatiga.ac.id E-mail: administrai@stainsalatiga.ac.id

Salatiga, September 15 , 2014
Dr. H. Sa’adi, M.Ag.
The Lecturer of Educational Faculty
Salatiga State Institute for Islamic Studies
ATTENTIVE COUNSELOR NOTES
Case: Lulu’atun Nasihah’s Graduating Paper
Dear,
The Head of Salatiga State
Institute for Islamic Studies
Assalamu’alaikum Wr.Wb.
After reading and correcting Lulu’atun Nasihah’s graduating paper entitled
“TEACHERS’ TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH AUTISM
(A Descriptive Study in Talenta Kids School for Autism in The Academic Year
of 2013/2014)”. I have decided and would like to propose that if it could be accepted
by the educational faculty. I hope it could be examined as soon as possible.

Wassalamu’alaikum Wr.Wb.
Consultant

Dr. H. Sa’adi, M.Ag.
NIP. 19630420 199203 1003

ii

MINISTRY OF RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS
SALATIGA STATE INSTITUTE FOR ISLAMIC STUDIES
(STAIN)
Jl.Tentara Pelajar 02 Phone(0298) 323706, 323433 Fax. 323433 Salatiga 50721
Website: www.stainsalatiga.ac.id E-mail: administrai@stainsalatiga.ac.id

Salatiga, September 13 , 2014
Ruwandi, S.Pd., MA.
The Lecturer of Educational Faculty
Salatiga State Institute for Islamic Studies
ATTENTIVE COUNSELOR NOTES
Case: Lulu’atun Nasihah’s Graduating Paper

Dear,
The Head of Salatiga State
Institute for Islamic Studies
Assalamu’alaikum Wr.Wb.
After reading and correcting Lulu’atun Nasihah’s graduating paper entitled
“TEACHERS’ TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH AUTISM
(A Descriptive Study in Talenta Kids School for Autism in The Academic Year
of 2013/2014)”. I have decided and would like to propose that if it could be accepted
by the educational faculty. I hope it could be examined as soon as possible.
Wassalamu’alaikum Wr.Wb.
Consultant

Ruwandi, S.Pd., MA.
NIP. 19661225 200003 1002

iii

DECLARATION
Bismi Allāhi Ar-Raĥmāni Ar-Raĥīmi

Hereby the writer declares that this graduating paper is composed by the
write herself, and it does not contain materials written and has been published by
other people and other peoples’idea except the information cited from the references.
The writer is capable to account to her graduation paper if in the future it can
be proved of containing others’ idea or in fact, the writer imitates the others’
graduating paper.
Likewise, this declaration is made by the writer, and she hopes that this
declaration can be understood.
Salatiga, September 13, 2014
The Writer

Lulu’atun Nasihah
113 10 126

iv

GRADUATING PAPER
TEACHERS’ TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH
AUTISM
(A Descriptive Study in Talenta Kids School for Autism in The Academic

Year of 2013/2014)

LULU’ATUN NASIHAH
NIM: KKI 113 10 126
Has been brought to the board of examiners of English English Department of
Educational Faculty of STAINSalatiga in September 29th, 2014, and hereby
considered to completely fulfill the requirement of the degree of Sarjana
Pendidikan Islam (S.Pd.I) in English Department of Educational Faculty of State
Institute for IslamicStudies (STAIN) Salatiga
Board of Examiners,
Head

: Prof. Dr. Muh Zuhri, M.A.

Secretary

: Faizal Risdianto, S.S., M.Hum.

1st Examiners : Hanung Triyoko, S.S., M.Ed.
2nd Examiner

: Ari Setiawan, S.Pd., MM.

3rd Examiner

: Ruwandi, S.pd., M.A.
Salatiga, September 29th , 2014
Head of STAIN Salatiga

Dr. H. Rahmat Hariyadi, M.Pd.
NIP.19670112 199203 1 005

v

MOTTO

ّ ‫اّللِ إِ َّن‬
ّ ‫علَى‬
َ‫اّللَ يُ ِحبُّ ْال ُمت َ َو ِ ّك ِليه‬
َ ‫عزَ ْم‬

َ ‫ت فَت َ َو َّك ْل‬
َ ‫فَإِذَا‬
“Then when you have taken a decision, put your trust in Allah, certainly, Allah
loves those who put their trust (in Him).” The Quran 3:159

“Yesterday I was clever, so I wanted to change the world. Today I am wise, so I
am changing myself.” – Rumi

vi

DEDICATION
I would like to dedicate this graduating paper to:
1. My loving parents for their countless pray and endless support. You have been there for
every decision I have made and help my dreams become reality. I hope I make you proud.
2. My sisters (Qurrota A’yun & Anisia Husna) and brothers (Yusuf Alfa Chizbi & Fikri
Yusfillah) whom I am not okay without them. I am so thankful to have you all.
3. Pak Hammam, M.Pd and Ibu Setia Rini, M.Pd. who always remind us to chase our dream.
4. All of lecturers in International Class STAIN Salatiga.
5. My dearest friends in International Class batch 2010. Indeed, you are the best.

vii

ACKNOLEDGMENT
In the name of Allah, The Most Gracious and The Most Merciful, The Lord of
Universe. Because of His blessing, the writer could finish this graduating paper.
Secondly, may peace and salutation be upon our prophet Muhammad SAW who has
guided mankind from the darkness into the lightness.
This research paper is made possible through the help and support from
everyone, including: parents, teachers, family, and friends. Especially, please allow
her to dedicate her acknowledgment of gratitude toward the following significant
counselors and contributors:
1. Dr. Rahmat Hariyadi, M.Pd. as the rector of Salatiga State Institute for Islamic Studies.
2. Hammam, M.Pd., as the first director of International Class Program.
3. Setia Rini, M.Pd., as the second director of International Class Program
4. Noor Malikhah, Ph.D as the third director of International Class Program

5. Dr. H. Sa’adi, M.Ag., as the first counselor, for his most support and encouragement.
He kindly read this paper and offered invaluable detailed advices on grammar and
organization of the paper.
6. Ruwandi, S.Pd. MA., as the second counselor, who has been always there to listen and

give advice. The writer deeply grateful to him for the long discussions that helped the
writer sort out the technical details of her work.
7. Dra Hj. Lilik Sriyanti M.Si., as the headmaster of Talenta Kids Salatiga, who has given
the writer permission to conduct the research there.
8. All of teachers in Talenta Kids Salatiga who have kindly shared their knowledge and
experiences.

viii

9. All the lecturers of International Class Program.
10. All staffs of STAIN Salatiga for their various forms of support during her graduate
study.
11. Dearest parents, siblings, extended family, and friends for their support and care.
12. All parties who could not be mentioned one by one and those who help the writer to
complete this graduation paper.

The writer would appreciate critique and constructive suggestions to make this
paper better. Finally, the writer hopes this graduation paper is beneficial to many
people. Amen.
Salatiga, September 2014

The Writer

Lulu’atun Nasihah

ix

ABSTRACT
The purposes of this research are to find out and analyze: (1) The
profile of teaching and learning activity in Talenta Kids School for Autism,
(2) Kinds of teaching strategies which are used by the teachers and the
implementation, (3) The relevances of the teaching strategies conducted by
the teachers toward students’ learning needs.
This study implied the descriptive qualitative research approach to
answer the research questions. The study was conducted in Talenta Kids
School for Autism Salatiga. The data were taken through observation and
interviews. The interview participants are the teachers of students with
autism.
The finding revealed that; teachers conducted different strategies of
teaching for each student with autism considering the characteristics and
impairments showed by the student. The strategies conducted by the teachers

are mostly modified from ABA (Applied Behavior Analysis) approach.
Teachers explained different methods to develop students’ communication
skills, social interaction, and repetitive behavior management.
The study concluded that there are relevancies of teaching strategies
applied by the teachers toward students’ learning needs. It is proved by the
students’ reports which say that most of the students are able to meet the
expectation of the learning goal by the end of the academic years. Some of
the students are even transferred into regular school which means that they
are already acceptable in normal life.
Keyword: Teaching strategies, Students with autism

x

xi

TABLE OF CONTENT

TITLE ........................................................................................................................ i
ATTENTIVE CONSELOR NOTES ......................................................................... ii
CERTIFICATION PAGE .......................................................................................... iv
DECLARATION ....................................................................................................... v
MOTTO………………………………………………………………………….......vi
DEDICATION ........................................................................................................... vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ......................................................................................... viii
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................... ix
TABLE OF CONTENT ............................................................................................. x
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... xiii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. Background of Study ................................................................................ 1
B. Limitation of the Problems ...................................................................... 5
C. Research Problems.................................................................................... 5
D. Research Objectives.................................................................................. 5
E. The Significances of the Research ............................................................ 6
F. Conceptualization
1. Teachers’ Teaching Strategies ............................................................ 6
2. Students with Autism…………………………………. ..................... 7
G. Review of Previous Researches ................................................................ 7
H. Paper Outlines........................................................................................... 11

xii

CHAPTER II THEORITICAL FRAMEWORKS
A. Autism
1. Definition ........................................................................................... 13
2. Characteristics Associated with Autism ............................................. 15
B. Approaches for Teaching Autism
1. Psycholinguistic
Approach……………………………………………………………….25
2. Lovaas Program
Approach……………………………………………..……………….26
3. Discrete Trial Training (DTT)…………………....……………………30
C. Teachers’ Teaching Strategies
1. Strategies for classroom management…………….………………….32
2. Strategies for communication development…….…………………....34
3. Strategies for teaching social skills…………………………………….38
4. Strategies for managing challenging behaviors………...……………..40

CHAPTER III RESEARCH REPORT
A. Research Method
1. Research Approach ............................................................................ 44
2. Type of Research ................................................................................ 44
3. Research Site ...................................................................................... 45
4. Method of Data Collection……………………………………..…......46
5. Technique of Data Analysis……………………….…………………54
6. Validity of the Finding………………………..………………………54

B. Research Setting
1. Research Location .............................................................................. 54
2. Research Schedule.............................................................................. 54

xiii

3. Profile of Talenta Kids Salatiga .......................................................... 55

CHAPTER IV DATA ANALYSIS
A. Data Display
1. The General Profile of Teaching and Learning Process inTalenta
Kids…………………………………………………………………………61
2. Teaching Strategies for Students with Autism………………....…………..63
B.

Discussion
1. The General Profile of Teaching and Learning Process in Talenta
Kids……………………………………………………………....................70
2. Teaching Strategies for Students with Autism……………...……………..74

CHAPTER V CLOSURE
A.

Conclusions
................................................................................................................ …
…..81

B.

Suggestion
................................................................................................................ …
…..83

BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIXES

xiv

LIST OF TABLES

1. Table 3.1 Observation Objects for Autism Classrooms……………….47
2. Table 3.1 Research Schedule…………………………………………..55
3. Table 3.3 Data of Students…………………………………………….59

xv

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
The increase number of children diagnosed with Autism has garnered
international attention, which led to President Obama‘s endorsement of Autism
awareness month and verbal proclamation of World Autism Awareness Day.
Furthermore, IACC was developed in accordance with the Combating Autism
Act of 2006, and was specifically established by congress in order to provide a
blueprint for Autism research (U.S Department of Health and Human Services
2011).
According to the data released by UNESCO, the population of children
with autism all over the world has increased significantly by the year of 2011
in round numbers 35 millions. While in Indonesia, as stated by Statistic Center
Bureau (Badan Pusat Statistik), the numbers of children with Autism has
reached 2.4 millions in 2010 and is getting increase around 500 in every year.
It is estimated that an average of 1 in 88 children living in Indonesia suffer
Autism.
Autism is a life-long developmental disability that prevents people from
understanding what they see, hear, and otherwise sense. This results in severe
problems with social relationships, communication, and behaviour (British
Columbia Ministry of Education, 2000, p. 10). Meanwhile, Simon Baron-

2

Cohen (1985, p. 07) view that people with autism also suffer from theory of
mind issue. Theory of mind refers to the notion that most of autistic individuals
―do not understand that other people have their own plans, thoughts, and points
of view. Furthermore, it appears that they have difficulty in understanding
other people's beliefs, attitudes, and emotions‖ (Lantz, 2009, p. 01).
In addition, some experts convey that all of autistic individuals have a
problem of context (Context Blindness). According to Vermeulen (2012, p.
21), Context Blindness can be defined as the lack of spontaneous use of context
when giving meaning, especially to vague and ambiguous stimuli. He then
enlists the characteristics of the context problems commonly showed by people
with autism such as: missing point, less of contextual sensitivity, literal
understanding,

difficult

in

understanding

non-verbal

and

figurative

communication, and lack of problem solving ability. So far, these
characteristics are mostly used and recommended as guidance to diagnose
autism.
Although autism is a syndrome which means there is no way to cure it,
autistic individuals can be taught and trained since earlier so they are able to
accustomed to their own disability and to interact with people in social life
without any serious obstacles. The most important thing is that they need to
live independently. Therefore, it is necessary for them to go to schools or
institutions providing appropriate teachers or instructors, therapists, facilities,
and methods.

3

In spite of many children with autism share some common characteristics;
each individual usually has specific interests, abilities, and personality (Carli,
2012, p. 18). Moreover, most children with autism also have some level of
intellectual disability that ranges from mild to severe. Some of them have
stronger abilities in the areas of rote memory and visual-spatial tasks than they
have in other areas. Hence, the teachers should adjust to various teaching
strategies in order to meet the learning needs of students with autism. .
Lately, there are many theories about teaching autism proposed by several
experts developed as approaches and teaching strategies which is applicable
both for non-inclusive and inclusive setting. One of them is what so called
Social Stories Method recommended by Carol Gray (1998). She has opinion
that social stories work well for children with autism because they lack the
ability to see situations from the perspective of others (Theory of Mind), may
miss important social skills, tend to dislike surprises, and tend to respond well
to repetition (Gray, 1998, p. 01). Different from Social Story which is designed
for teaching social skills, K. Pierce and L. Schreibman (1997, p. x) propose the
method of Using Peer Trainers to Promote Social Behaviour in Autism.
Besides, Cognitive Picture Rehearsal from J. Groden and P. LeVasseur (1995,
p.54) is also considered as an excellent method to teach self-control by
presenting a sequence of behaviours in the form of pictures or pictographs with
an accompanying script. However, no single method for teaching students with
autism is successful for all students. Also, students‘ needs change over time,

4

making it necessary for teachers to try other approaches or the same
approaches with diferent strategies.
According to Indonesia Autism Foundation (Yayasan Autisme Indonesia,
2014), the lack of information and education about Autism in Indonesia has a
big impact on the wrong treatments. Moreover, professionals and education
institutions for Autism are still concentrating in mere big cities across Java. It
is reported that so far there are only 40 psychiatrists who are expert on Autism.
In addition, the high cost for the treatments sometimes out of reach for some
lower socioeconomic background. Ironically, the education for students with
Autism in many schools does not meet the qualifications yet because of the
lack of schools‘ preparations.
Based on the overview above, the researcher is interested in conducting a
research

entitled

―TEACHERS‘

TEACHING

STRATEGIES

FOR

STUDENTS WITH AUTISM (A Descriptive study in Talenta Kids School for
Autism in the Academic Year 2013/2014).
B. Limitation of the Problem
Knowing that teaching strategies for autism is a large topic which includes
a lot of aspects, the researcher specifies the study in the strategies to overcome
the common characteristics of autistic students divided into three aspects, i.e.:
impairment in communication, impairment in social interaction, and unusual
behavior, whereas these significantly influent the learning difficulties.

5

C. Research Problems
1. How does the profile of teaching and learning activities in Talenta Kids
School for Autism look like?
2. What kinds of teaching strategies and how are they applied?
3. How do the teaching strategies conducted by the teachers benefit students‘
learning needs?
D. Research Objectives
In accordance with the problems, the researchers have objectives of the
research as follows:
1. This research is applicable to find out the profile of teaching and learning
activity in Talenta Kids School for Autism.
2. This research is applicable to find out the strategies used by the teachers in
Talenta kids School for Autism and how they are applied.
3. This research is applicable to find out the relevances of using certain
strategies toward students‘ learning needs.
E. The Significances of the Research
The significances of this research are:
1. Theoretically, the result of this research will prove the truth of some theories
concerning teaching and learning for autism.

6

2. Practically, the result of this research may offer models of teaching that may
be useful as input or evaluation for teachers, especially teachers in schools
of autism and/or public schools with autism students.
F. Conceptualization
To avoid misunderstanding on some concepts in this study, the researcher
provides the explanations as below:
1. Teachers’ Teaching Strategies
The meaning of strategy as defined in Oxford (1995, p.1179) is a
plan designed for a particular purpose.

While approaches deal with

general philosophies of teaching and methods deal with more practical
nuts and bolts, strategies deal with specific actions.
To make it clearer, the writer refers to Strasser‘s (1994, p. 01)
definition of Teacher‘s Teaching Strategies i.e. generelize

plan for a

lessons which includes stucture, desired learner behaviour, in terms of the
goals of the instruction, and an outline of tactics necessary to implement
the strategy. There are different teaching strategies such as lecture, case
method, discussion, cooperative learning, distance learning, and ―The Role
Playing Process ―.

7

2. Students with Autism

According to IDEA (Individual with Disability Education Act)
(2004), Autism means a developmental disability significantly affecting
verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally
evident before age three that adversely affects a student‘s educational
performance. Koegel (1995, p. 20) explains that students with Autism
usually demonstrate difficulties in learning and often show unusual
behavior, patterns of attention, and responses to sensory stimuli.

Based on the explanations above it can be briefly concluded that
students with autism are they who have problem in communication and
interaction with others as the impact of a serious mental condition that
develops during childhood. The more detail information is written in the
chapter II from this paper.

G. Review of Previous Researches
To enrich the information related to this study, the researcher takes
reviews from the following research findings:
J. M Norman, B. C. Collins, and J. W. Schuster (2001) come with their
research of Using an Instructional Package Including Video Technology to
Teach Self-Help Skills to Elementary Students with Mental Disabilities which
demonstrates effectiveness of using video models for teaching functional skills
to learners who suffer autism. For example, video has been used to teach

8

preparation of food, shaving, and other daily living skills. According to them,
video can isolate steps of a process and show perfect, repeated demonstrations
of critical steps. Singularly, one of the more important behavioral principles for
teaching students who have significant disabilities is the need to provide
repetition of the targeted skills while manipulating important materials.
(Norman, et al. 2001, p. 06)
Judi Randi, Tina Newman, and Elena L. Grigorenko (2001, p. 01)
investigated about teaching student with autism to read meaning. The paper
first summarizes the research on reading comprehension with a focus on the
cognitive skills and processes that are involved in gaining meaning from text
and then reviews studies of reading comprehension deficits in children on the
spectrum. The paper concludes with a review of reading comprehension
interventions for children on the spectrum. ―These children can especially
benefit from interventions addressing particular cognitive processes, such as
locating antecedent events, generating and answering questions, locating
referents, and rereading to repair understanding‖ (Randi et.al.2001, p. 08).
Reading comprehension is an important skill for all children to acquire.
Understanding language, whether in written or oral discourse, is essential for
communicative interactions. Although individuals with autism are typically
delayed in language development, experience with written text may actually
facilitate the acquisition of language skills. While Judi Randi and his
colleagues focus their research on reading comprehension, in this paper, the

9

writer also describes the oral discourse between teacher and students and/or
among students themselves.
Another research was conducted by Stephanie Toelken (2009) with the
paper report entitled ―Increasing Independence among Children Diagnosed
with Autism Using: a Brief Embedded Teaching Strategy‖. The purpose of her
study was to evaluate the effects of a brief embedded teaching procedure,
involving least-to-most prompting, for two paraprofessional staff in order to
increase independent responses of two children diagnosed with autism in an
inclusive setting. Training was given using a behavioral skills training
approach, involving instructions, modeling, rehearsal, and feedback. A
multiple baseline design across behaviors was used to evaluate the effects of
the embedded teaching procedure. Maintenance of training effects was
evaluated two weeks following the end of the study. After training of the brief
embedded prompting procedure and during the following up probes, both
students showed increased independence in each skill that staff were trained to
teach. (Tolken, 2009, p. 02)
Another review is taken from Carli M. Cavanaugh‘ (2012, p. 02-05) paper
under the title ―Teachers Perceptions of Interventions for Children with Autism
in Aa School Setting‖ which focuses on interventions for children with autism
in a school setting. The interventions being reviewed are social stories, visual
cues, and family support. The definition and evaluation of social stories and
visual cues in academic settings is also discussed in her paper. She also
examined the population of parents of children with autism. The research

10

suggests appropriate use of social stories and visual cues in academic settings
are effective and positive; however the transfer into nonacademic settings is
limited, suggesting a need for more resources in nonacademic settings.
Lastly, the writer takes review from Rita Jordan‘s (2003) journal that
considers the nature of the presumed social play deficit in autistic spectrum
disorders (ASDs). ―The nature of play and its typical development is outlined
and discussed in relation to play development in ASDs‖ (Jordan, 2003, p. 04).
It is suggested that social play is a confluence of two strands of development
that are affected in autism: social and emotional development, and the
cognitive development of play. It is shown that social play develops in a
transactional way and in autistic disorder initial social difficulties prevent the
development of social interaction, with its role in eliciting and enriching
spontaneous play.
At the same time, cognitive and affective difficulties prevent the play of
children with autism developing to the extent of attracting other children and
being of a complexity from which social play might develop. ―This cycle of
impoverished play opportunities for children with ASDs may be broken
through direct teaching and there are encouraging models of teaching social
play with some success‖ (Jordan, 2003, p. 05).
What makes this research different from the previous ones is that it is
conducted in a school with exclusive or special education setting, while the
previous researches were conducted in inclusive setting.

11

H. Paper Outlines

This research paper is organized into five chapters: introduction,
theoritical frameworks, research methodology, finding and discussion, and
closure.

The first chapter is introduction. It presents the research foundation
including background of study, formulation of problems, the aims of
research, literature review, and its organization paper. The keys of
comprehending this research are provided in this chapter.
To keep both research‘s validity and reliability, the researcher provides
theories from several scholars which support this study in the second chapter
named theoretical framework. It is important to define unusual terms that
could be misinterpreted. This theoretical framework presents deep
explanations of students with autism a long with the various different
characteristics. Also, some theories of teaching strategy that considered
appropriate for students with autism are also presented here.

The third chapter is research report. It consists of research method,
research design, data collection methods, and techniques of data analysis. The
research setting and the data sources including respondents and its sample are
also reported in this chapter.

The fourth chapter is data analysis. It includes data display and discussion.

12

The final chapter, the fifth, is closure. What can be taken from this
research

is

shortly

concluded

in

this

chapter.

In

addition,

recommendations from the researcher are also listed in this chapter.

The last part is bibliography and appendixes.

the

13

CHAPTER II
THEORITICAL FRAMEWORKS
This chapter is devided into two sub sections that provides fundamental
theories and deep explanation about autism and

the teaching strategies for

students with autism suggested by some experts. In this chapter, the researcher
attempts to give an overview on what this research leading to.
A. Autism
1. Definition
Autism is a long-life developmental disorder which is characterized
by impairments in communication and social interaction, and restricted,
repetitive and stereotypic patterns of behavior, interests, and activities
(Staples, 2010, p. 03). It is a complex neurological disorder that affects the
functioning of the brain. Autism is a spectrum disorder, which means that
the symptoms can be present in a variety of combinations, and can range
from mild to severe. Multiple abilities can be affected, while others are not.
For example:
a. Some individuals may have a severe intellectual disability, while others
have normal levels of intelligence.
b. There may be a range of difficulties in expressive and receptive language
and communication. It is estimated that up to 50% of individuals with
autism do not develop functional speech. For those who do, speech may

14

have unusual qualities and be limited in terms of communicative
functions. (Staples, 2010, p. 07)
c. There are problems with attention and resistance to change.
(Saskatchewan Education, 1999, p. 05)
d. All individuals with autism have difficulties with social interaction, but
the extent and type of difficulty may vary. Some may be very withdrawn,
while others may be overly active and approach others in peculiar ways.
(Saskatchewan Education, 1999, p. 05)
e. Individuals with autism may respond differently to sensory stimuli and
may exhibit odd behaviors such as hand flapping, spinning, or rocking.
They may also demonstrate unusual use of objects and attachments to
objects. (Staples, 2010, p. 06)
These different characteristics of autism cause a significant implication to
the instructor to determine what to teach and how to teach for each
individual with autism.
The cause or combination of causes of autism is not certainly known.
There is growing evidence that autism is a genetic condition, and that there
are likely several different genes involved. The mode of genetic
transmission appears complex, and scientists are focusing their work on
finding which genes may be involved and how these genes are affected. So
far, it appears that for at least a significant subgroup of persons with autism,
there is a genetic susceptibility which differs across families. (Bristol, 1996,
p. 26)

15

There is also evidence that there may be a higher prevalence among
children with autism of problems very early in the mother‘s pregnancy, at
birth, or even after birth than for children who do not have autism. Early life
events and environmental factors may interact significantly with genetic
susceptibility in the child. (Rodier, 2000, p. 11)
Recently, various types of investigations, including ―imaging studies
electro-encephalographic studies, tissue studies on autopsy material, and
neuro-chemical studies, have provided further evidence of a biological basis
for autism‖ (Rodier, 2000, p. 11). The brains of individuals with autism
appear to have some structural and functional differences from the brains of
other people. Anomalies in the brain stem and cranial nerves have been
found. Ongoing research is expected to pinpoint the exact genes and other
conditions that combine to cause autism.
2. Characteristics Associated with Autism
Although every person with autism is unique, some characteristics are
considered to be particularly important in the diagnosis of autism. These fall
into four major categories:
a. Impairment in Communication
All people with autism experience language and communication
difficulties, although there are considerable differences in language ability
among individuals. Some are non-verbal while others may have extensive
language with deficits in the area of pragmatics (the social use of

16

language). People with autism may seem caught up in a private world in
which communication is unimportant. This is not an intentional action but
rather an inability to communicate. Language difficulties that may be
present include (Saskatchewan Education, 1999, p. 11):
1)

Impairments in nonverbal communication include differences in facial
expression, use of gestures, imitation, eye contact, body postures and
mutual or shared focus of attention.

2)

There may be a delay in or lack of expressive language skills.

3)

Those who do develop speech may demonstrate differences in pitch,
intonation, rate, rhythm, or stress, e.g., some individuals with autism
may demonstrate speech that is monotone or has a lilting quality and
distinct repetitive rhythm.

4)

Speech may also include repetitive and idiosyncratic language.

5)

Echolalia is common. This is the immediate or delayed literal
repetition of the speech of others. Echolalic speech may appear to be
non-meaningful, but it does indicate the ability to produce speech and
to imitate. It may also serve a purpose such as turn taking, making a
statement, making an affirmative answer, making a request, rehearsal
to help with processing what is heard, or to aid in the process of selfregulation.

6)

Individuals who develop speech may have a restricted vocabulary that
is dominated by nouns, and communication may be characterized by
restricted communicative functions. The majority of speech is often to

17

make requests or rejections to regulate one‘s physical environment,
and is limited in social functions.
7)

There may be a tendency to perseverate on a topic. That is, to
continually discuss one topic and have difficulty changing topics.

8)

Difficulty with pragmatics is evidenced by problems initiating
conversation, using rules, maintaining a topic, interrupting, and
rigidity. The individual with autism may demonstrate a stereotypic
routine way of interacting.

9)

Limited social communication should not be interpreted as a lack of
interest or unwillingness. It is more likely due to deficits in the ability
to extract social information from a social context.

10) Often, there are problems with comprehension of verbal information,
following long verbal instructions, and remembering a sequence of
instructions. In addition, the comprehension of language may be
context-specific. The extent of difficulty will vary among individuals,
but even those who are high functioning may have difficulty with
comprehension of verbal information.
b. Implications for Instruction
Effective programs for students with autism and other pervasive
developmental

disorders

include

comprehensive

communication

assessment and intervention. This typically involves assessment by a
speech and language pathologist as well as informal observation and
classroom-based evaluation. The assessment serves as the basis for the

18

identification of goals, objectives, and strategies for facilitating
development of receptive language and expressive skills, particularly with
pragmatic skills. Instruction should emphasize paying attention, imitating,
comprehending, and using language in play and social interaction.
Communication goals should emphasize the functional use of language
and communication in various settings. (Garside et al., 2000, p. 20)
b. Impairment in Social Interaction
Students with autism show qualitative differences in social interaction
and often have difficulty establishing relationships. They have limited
social interactions or a rigid way of interacting with others. The difficulties
they have with social communication should not be seen as a lack of
interest or unwillingness to interact with others; this lack of effective
communication may result from an inability to distill social information
from the social interaction and use appropriate communication skills to
respond. (Garside et al., 2000, p. 18)
Understanding

social

situations

typically

requires

language

processing and non-verbal communication, which are often areas of deficit
for people with autism. They may not notice important social cues, and
may miss necessary information. People with autism typically have an
impairment in the use of non-verbal behaviours and gestures to regulate
social interaction, and they may have difficulty reading the non-verbal
behaviour of others. People with autism have significant difficulty with

19

any interaction that requires knowledge of other people and what they
think or know. It has been theorized that people with autism have a social
cognitive deficit in this area. Baron-Cohen has described this as the
―theory of mind‖. (Saskatchewan Education, 1999, p. 11-12)
People with autism are not able to understand the perspective of
others, or even to understand that other people have a perspective that
could be different from their own. They may also have difficulty
understanding their own and particularly other people‘s beliefs, desires,
intentions, knowledge, and perceptions. Students with autism often have
problems understanding the connection between mental states and actions.
For example, children with autism may not be able to understand that
another child is sad even if that child is crying because they are not
themselves sad. Teachers may better understand the thinking and
behaviour of their students with autism if they realize that these students
may not be able to grasp the fact that other people have their own
perceptions and viewpoints. Students with autism demonstrate these
difficulties in a variety of observable ways. They have a tendency to play
with toys and objects in unusual and stereotypical ways. Some may engage
in excessive or inappropriate laughing or giggling. Play that does occur
often lacks the imaginative qualities of social play. Normal children
usually play in their own imaginative world over toys while autistic
children are often more interested in observing the toys or objects itself.
Some children with autism may play near others, but do not share and take

20

turns, while others may withdraw entirely from social situations. (Garside
et al., 2000, p. 23)
The quality and quantity of social interaction occurs on a continuum.
Social interaction can be classified into three subtypes along this
continuum (Garside et al., 2000, p. 22-23):
1) aloof—those who show no observable interest or concern in
interacting with other people except for those needed to satisfy basic
personal needs; they may become agitated when in close proximity to
others and may reject unsolicited physical or social contact.
2) passive—those who do not initiate social approaches, but will accept
initiations from others
3) active but odd—those who will approach for social interaction but do
so in an unusual and often inappropriate fashion
It should be noted that people with autism do not necessarily fall into
one distinct spot on the continuum.
d. Implications for instruction
Social skill development is essential for students with autism, and it is
an important component in developing plans for managing challenging
behaviours. Students with autism do not learn social skills incidentally by
observation and participation. It is generally necessary to target specific
skills for explicit instruction and to provide support for using the skills in
social situations. (Garside et al., 2000, p. 24)

21

e. Unusual Behaviour
Children with autism often demonstrate unusual and distinctive
behaviours, including:
1) restricted range of interests, and a preoccupation with one specific
interest or object
2) inflexible adherence to a non-functional routine
3) stereotypic and repetitive motor mannerisms, such as hand flapping,
finger flicking, rocking, spinning, walking on tiptoes, spinning objects
4) preoccupation with parts of objects
5) fascination with movement, such as the spinning of a fan, or turning
wheels on toys insistence on sameness and resistance to change
unusual responses to sensory stimuli. (Garside et al., 2000, p. 24,
Saskatchewan Education, 1999, p. 14)
f. Implications for instruction
Many of the odd and stereotypical behaviours associated with autism
may be caused by other factors, such as a hyper-sensitivity or
hyposensitivity to sensory stimulation, difficulties in understanding social
situations, difficulties with changes in routine, and anxiety. The
instructional plan needs to incorporate strategies for expanding the
students‘ interests, developing skills, understanding the students‘
responses to sensory stimuli, and preparing the students for planned
changes. In planning instruction, teachers need to consider the problematic

22

behaviour and its function for that particular child for example, gaining
attention or avoiding something. It may not be possible to eliminate all
repetitive behaviours. Successful teaching strategies for supporting
students with autism often focus on making environmental adaptations to
decrease an inappropriate behaviour, and/or helping the student to learn
another more appropriate behaviour that will serve the same function.
g.

Learning Characteristics
People with autism have a psycho-educational profile that is different
from normally developing individuals. Studies show that there may be
deficits in many cognitive functions, yet not all are affected. In addition,
there may be deficits in complex abilities, yet the simpler abilities in the
same area may be intact. Current research identifies the following
cognitive features associated with autism (Saskatchewan Education, 1999,
p. 16) :
1) deficits in paying attention to relevant cues and information, and in
attending to multiple cues,
2) receptive and expressive language impairments, particularly the use of
language to express abstract concepts,
3) deficits in concept formation and abstract reasoning,
4) impairment in social cognition, including deficits in the capacity to
share attention and emotion with others, and to understand the feelings
of others,

23

5) inability to plan, organize, and solve problems.
Some students with autism have stronger abilities in the areas of rote
memory and visual-spatial tasks than they have in other areas. They
probably excel at visual-spatial tasks, such as putting puzzles together, and
perform well at spatial, perceptual, and matching tasks. Some may be able
to remember simple information, but have difficulty to remember more
complex information.
Strength in visual-spatial skills has been described in personal
accounts of Temple Grandin (1995, p. 20) who is suffering from autism.
Temple Grandin is internationally known for her expertise in designing
livestock facilities, as well as for her presentations and publications of her
personal experiences with autism. She attributes her success in designing
livestock facilities to her ability to visualize the required detail of such
apparatus and buildings. She states that some people with autism can more
easily learn and recall information that is presented in a visual format, and
that they may have problems learning about things that cannot be thought
about in pictures. She explains that she has a visual image for everything
she hears and reads, and that she ―thinks in pictures.‖
Garside et al. (2000, p. 22) describes that Students with autism
may have difficulty comprehending oral and written information, for
example, following directions or understanding what they read. Yet some

24

higher-functioning individuals may be relatively capable of identifying
words, applying phonetic skills, and knowing word meanings.
Some students may demonstrate strength in certain aspects of
speech and language, such as sound production (phonology), vocabulary,
and simple grammatical structures (syntax), yet have significant difficulty
carrying on a conversation and using speech for social and interactive
purposes (pragmatics).)A student who is high-functioning may perform
numerical computations relatively easily, but be unable to solve
mathematical problems. (Garside et al., 2000, p. 25)
Autistic students respond well to a structured environment and
learn best by consistency and repetition of newly acquired skills. They
most often learn these new skills more effectively in a quieter environment
with few distractions. (Saskatchewan Education, 1999, p. 18)
h. Implications for instruction
These cognitive variations result in patterns of strengths and
weaknesses in a students‘ academic performance, social interaction, and
behaviour. Development of cognitive skills is usually uneven. The
education program planned for the student should therefore be based on
the unique combination of strengths and needs of that individual. (Garside
et al., 2000, p. 28)

25

The professional literature on autism has documented deficits in
attention and language development, problems in concept formation, and
difficulties with memory for complex information. These characteristics,
considered in combination with personal accounts of how individuals with
autism are more visually oriented, suggest that visual material should be
incorporated when teaching individuals with autism. (Garside et al., 2000,
p. 28)
B. Approaches for Teaching Autism
This sub-section provides some information of approaches which is
considered appropriate for teaching autistic students. As school for autism is
included in Special Education, provision for special children may be seen in
broad sense as encouraging educational progress, as well as nurturing personal
and social development (Farrel, 2003, p. 128). Is a child or young person is
receiving psychotherapy; it can be helpful if the school is aware of the aims of
the therapy and its potential contribution to the child‘s ultimate well-being.
Within such a framework, educators, therapists and other professionals can
work towards similar goals (ibid.).
Before examining some distinctive approaches to psychotherapy
autism, it is important to mention that combined approaches may be used.
Accordingly, the following are the approaches suggested by some experts
which are mostly the intervention from Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA).
Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA) or sometimes called Observational

26

Learning Theory is an evidence-based, intensive education therapy for children
with an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). It is scientifically proven to be
effective and is the preferred method of treatment for ASD. (www.autism
speaks. org accessed on 30 September 2014)
1. Psycholinguistic Approach
The psycholinguistic framework was originally developed in studies
of children with specific phonological impairment and verbal dyspraxia.
However, it may be used with a wide range of children with communication
difficulties including autistic features (People and Wellington, 2001, pp.
299)
Psycholinguistics has been said to concern‘…the process underlying
the production, perception, and comprehension of language‘ (Weismer,
2006, p. 93). The primary goal of psycholinguistics has been said to be
‗elucidating psychological mechanism of language use‘ (Traxler and
Gernsbacher, 2006, p.8).
2. Lovaas Program Approach
The Lovaas programme [ Lovaas, 1987 and the Lovass Institute for
Early Intervention (www.lovaas.com)] is based on the principle of Applied
Behavioral Analysis and uses behavioral methods to teach skills and to
reduce unwanted behavior. (Farrel, 2009, p. 164)

27

The Lovaas Model was created as a comprehensive, integrated
program in which skills complement and build upon each other. The
intervention progresses systematically through stages of learning and
emphasizes individualization of curriculum based on each child's strengths
and weaknesses.
a. Very Young Children – An Interactive Play-based Approach
Children younger than three typically need additional time to adapt
to the intensity of therapy. Treatment typically begins at 10-15 hours per
week and can gradually increase to 35-40 hours per week by the age of
three. Instructors use incidental teaching to take advantage of situations
occurring in the natural environment to teach new behaviors. For
example, when a