GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 FOR SCIENCE STUDENTS.
i
ii
i
ii
i
FOREWORDS
This is the first time I wrote a text book of general chemistry 2 for
science students at University Level. This book is intended to help students in
studying chemistry especially those who studying chemistry at undergraduate
levels. This book was written in English in order to help students of bilingual
classes in Medan and around the country. There is a need for writing
chemistry text based on local curriculumn in English so that students would be
able to comprehend the materials presented. Of course, this book is urgently
required, since the State University of Medan has introduced a new class
which is called bilingual classes. This particular graduates are intended to
teach students at senior high school levels, where international schools and
international standard based schools (Sekolah Berstandar International or
SBI) have been introduced recently by Indonesian gevernment at several
senior high schools through out the country. These new programs required
teachers who are capable in teaching subject matters in English, especially
chemistry, physics, biology and mathematics. I hope this book will able to
assit and give contributions to students who studying chemistry at second
semester in Unimed and other universities, since this modul was written as
clear as possible in English.
At last, I would like to thank Rector of Unimed for facilitating,
funding and publishing this book.
Sincerely yours,
Wesly Hutabarat
ii
CONTENTS
Forewords
i
Contents
ii
Figures
ix
Tables
xi
CHAPTER 1. EQUILIBRIUM
1
1.1.
Calculating Formula Masses
3
1.2.
Shift in Equilibrium
3
1.3.
The Equilibrium Constant
4
1.4.
The Equilibrium Constant, Kp and Kc
6
1.5.
Magnitudes of K Values
8
1.6.
Equilibrioum Quation, Q
9
1.7.
Initial-Change-Equilibrium (I-C-E) Charts
9
1.8.
Acid-Base Equilibrium
10
1.9.
Acid Dissociation Xconstant
11
1.10. Base Dissociation Constant
11
1.11. Ion Product Constant
12
1.12. Conjugate Base expressions
12
CHAPTER 2. SOLUTION
15
2.1
15
Solution
2.1.1. Percentage
15
2.1.2. Mole Fraction
17
2.1.3. Molarity (Formality)
20
2.1.4. Molality
21
2.1.5. Normality
22
2.1.6. Osmolarity
22
2.1.7. Ionic Strength
23
2.2.
25
Acid-Base Reaction
2.2.1. Tradition Theories
26
iii
2.2.2. Arrhenius Theory
27
2.2.3. Bronsted-Lowry Theory
27
2.2.4. Lewis Acids- and Bases
28
2.2.5. Water
29
2.3.
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
30
2.3.1. Acids and Bases Ionization Constant
32
2.3.2. Calculation Percentage Composition From Formulas
32
2.4.
Determination of Formulas from Percentage
Composition Data
35
2.4.1. Using Percentage Composition
36
2.5.
Calculating Molecular Formula
37
2.6.
Nomenclatur of Acids & Bases
38
2.7.
Strong and Weak Acids and Bases
38
2.7.1. Properties of Acids and Bases
39
2.8.
41
Physical Properties
2.8.1. Colligative Properties of solutions
41
2.8.2. Vapor Pressures
42
2.8.3. Boiling Point Elevation
43
2.8.4. Freezing Point Depression
44
2.8.5. Osmosis
44
2.9.
45
Neutralization
CHAPTER 3. REDOX REACTION AND
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
3.1.
Redox Reactions
47
48
3.1.1. Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations
49
3.1.2. Ion-Electron Half-reaction Method
50
3.1.3. Balancing from Oxidation Number Changes
53
3.1.4. Balancing Halt-reaction by the Change
3.2.
in Oxidation Number Method
55
Electronegativity
57
iv
3.2.1. Electrode Potentials
3.2.3. Effect of pH on E
58
v
4.2.4. Fission and Fusion
93
4.2.5. Fusion
95
4.3. Application of Radioactive Isotopes in
Chemistry and Biology
95
4.3.1. Radiocarbon Dating
96
4.3.2. Radioactivity
98
4.4.
Uranium Deposits in Sedimentary Rock
100
4.4.1. Radioactive Waste
102
4.4.1.1. The Nature and Significance of Radioactive Waste
102
4.4.2. Pharmacokinetics
104
4.4.2.1. Sources of waste
105
4.4.2.2. Radiation Poisoning
111
4.4.2.3. Radioactive Pollution
111
4.4.2.4. Sign and Symptoms
112
4.4.2.5. Cutaneous Radioactive Syndrome
113
4.4.2.6. Exposure Levels
113
4.4.2.7. External vs Internal exposure
115
4.4.2.8. Nuclear Warfare and Bomb Tests
115
4.4.2.9. Nuclear Reactor Accidents
116
4.4.2.10. Ingestion and Inhalation
116
4.4.2.11. Hazards
117
4.4.2.12. Low Level Contamination
117
4.4.2.13. High Level Contamination
118
4.4.3.
118
The Main Source of Nuclear Energy
4.4.3.1. Element Plutonium-Pu
118
4.4.3.2. Plutonium Reactions
118
4.4.3.3. Uranium -238
119
4.4.3.4. Nuclear Energy Applications
120
4.4.3.5. Breeder Reactors
120
4.4.3.6. Radiation Shielding
120
vi
4.4.3.7. Downblending
121
4.4.3.8. Nuclear Weapons
121
4.4.3.9. Radioactive and Decay
123
4.4.3.10. Radium Series
123
CHAPTER 5. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
128
5.1.
128
Hydrocarbon
5.1.1. Homolog Series
129
5.1.2. Types of Formula
129
5.2.
130
Bonding in Alkane
5.2.1. Mthane, CH4
131
5.2.2. Promotion of an Electron
132
5.3.
133
Ethane, C2H6
5.3.1. Free Rotation of Carbon-Carbon Single Bond
134
5.3.2. Other Alkanes
135
5.3.3.1. Alkanes: Simple- Chain
135
5.3.3.2. Strutural Isomerism
136
5.3.3.3. Alkanes: Branched-Chains
136
5.3.3.4. Cycloalkanes
138
5.3.3.4.1. Substituted Cycloalkanes
138
5.3.3.4.2. Reactions of Alkanes
138
5.4.
139
Molecular Shape
5.4.1. The Formation of Single Covalent Bonds
139
5.4.2. Lone Electron Pairs
141
5.4.3. Linear and Planar Shapes
142
5.4.3.1. Electron-Poor Atoms
142
5.4.3.2. Five and Six Groups
143
5.5.
144
Alkenes
5.5.1. Structure
144
5.5.2. Naming Alkenes
145
5.5.3. Physical Properties
146
vii
5.5.4. Isomerism
146
5.5.5. EZ Notation
147
5.5.6. Alkenes Formation
150
5.5.6.1. Thermal Decomposition of Alkanes
150
5.5.6.2. Hydrogenation of Alkynes
150
5.5.6.3. Reaction of Halogenated Derivatives with Zinc Metal
151
5.5.6.4. Dehydrogenation of Mono-Halogenated Derivatives
151
5.5.6.5. Dehydration of Alcohols
152
5.6.6.6. Synthesis of Alkene by Dehydration of an Alcohol
152
5.5.6.7. Wittig Reaction
153
5.6.
153
Reaction of Alkenes
5.6.1. Hydrogen Addition or Hydrogenation
153
5.6.2. X2 addition or Halogenations
153
5.6.3. HX Addition
154
5.6.4. H2O Addition
154
5.6.5. HBr Addition in the Presence of Peroxides
154
5.7. Test for Unsaturation
155
5.7.1. Reduction with Hydrogen
155
5.7.2. Reaction with Hydrogen Bromide
155
5.7.3. Poly (ethene)
156
5.7.4. Poly (propene)
156
5.7.5. Poly (chloroethene) PVC
157
5.7.6. Poly(fluoroethene)
157
5.8.
157
Alcohols
5.8.1. The Fractional Group and its Test
158
5.8.2. Reactions of Alcohols
158
5.9.
Types of Alcohol
159
5.10. Aldehydes and Ketones
159
5.10.1.General Formula
159
5.11. Carboxylic Acids
160
viii
5.11.1. The Relationship between Alcohols,
Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids
160
5.12. Cycloalkenes
161
5.13. Alkynes
162
CHAPTER 6. BIOCHEMISTRY
164
6.1.
165
Amino Acids and Proteins
6.1.1. Amino Acids
165
6.1.2. Recommended Daily Intake
168
6.1.3. Use of Essential Amino Acids
169
6.2.
171
Fatty Acids
6.2.1. Functions
171
6.3.
Vitamin A
172
6.4.
Thiamine
173
CHAPTER 7. REACTION RATES
174
7.1. Introduction
174
7.2. Rate of Equation
175
7.3. Zeroth Order Reactions
175
7.4. First-order Reactions
177
7.5. Second-order Equations
180
7.6. The Activation Energy
184
7.7. Collision Theory of Reaction Rates
187
LITERATURE
189
ix
Figures
Figure 3.1. pH Meter
Figure 3.2. Daniel
63
x
Figure 5.2. Electronic Configuration
131
Figure 5.3. Electron Promotion
132
Figure. 5.4. Sp3 Hybrization
132
Figure 5.5. Covalent Bonding in Methane Molecules
134
Figure 5.6. Bonding Orbital in Ethane Molecules
134
Figure 5.7. Sigma Bond in Ethane Molecules
134
Figure 5.8. Ethane molecules
134
Figure. 5. 9.Line Structure of 2-Methyl and Hexane
136
Figure 5.10. Hybrid Orbital of Methane
139
Figure. 5.11. Methane 3D Structure
140
Figure 5.12. CH4 is Tetrahedral Molecules
141
Figure 5.13. The Lone Pair Electron of Ammonia
142
Figure 5.14. Linear Shape in Carbon Dioxides
143
Figure 5.15. Bending Shape in Sulfur Dioxides
143
Figure 3.16. Three Dimension Shape-3D
144
Figure 5.17. Cis-Trans But-2-ene
146
Figure 5.18. E-Z -3-methylpent-2-ene
149
Figure 5.1.9. Comparison of E-Z with Cis-Trans
149
Figure 5.20. Diagram for Isomers, Constitutional
Isomers and Steroisomers
163
Figure 6.1. Essential vs. Conditional Essentiality Amino Acids
167
Figure 7.1. Zeroth Order Reaction
176
Figure 7.2. First Order Reaction
179
Figure 7.3. Second Order Reactions
182
Figure 7.4. Variations of Enthalpy in a Reaction
185
Figure 7.5. Collision Diameter of Molecules
185
Figure 7.6. Different Directions for Two Colliding Molecules
186
xi
Tables
Table.1.1. Q Values Compared with K
9
Table 1.2. I-C-E Chart
10
Table 2.1. Ionic Strength of Some Compounds
24
Table 3.1. The Common Oxidation Number of Some Elements
49
Table 3.2. Oxidation State Changes of Iron and Chlorate
56
Table 3.3. Potential Electrode of Half-Reactions
59
Table 3.4. Increasing Strength of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
71
Table 3.5. Standard Reduction Potential Eo for Half-cells
at 298.15 K (pH=0)
72
Table 4.1. Masses of Some Fundamental Particles
91
Table 4.2. Shows the Uranium Series of Radioactive
Decays of 29892U to
206
82Pb.
93
Table 4.3. Binding Energy of Isotopes
94
Table 4.4. Isotopes Used in Chemistry and Biology
96
Table 4.5. Long Lived Fision Products of Tc Series
103
Table 4.6. Medium Lived Fission Products of Eu-155 Series
103
Table 4.7. Uranium Grades in ppm
104
Table 4.8. Fissions Products of Actinides Series
104
Table. 4.9. The Most Stable Isotopes of Uranium-232
107
Table 4.10.Toxicity of Uranium Radiations
110
Table 4.11. Radiation Symptons after Exposuring
to Radioactive Radiation
114
Table 4.12. Uranium-238 Characteristics
119
Table 4.13. Uranium Ores
123
Table 4.14. Uranium-238 Decaying Products
124
Table 4.15. Uranium Isotopes
125
Table 4.16. The Most Stable Isotopes of Plutonium
125
Table 5.1.
129
Bond Energy
xii
Table 5.2. Prefix for Naming Alkanes
135
Table 5.3. Orbital Geometries
141
Table 5.4. Naming Alcohols
157
Table 5.5. Formula and Nomenclature of Aldehydes and Ketones
159
Table 5.6. Naming Carxyclic Acids
160
Table 5.7. Common Functional Groups
163
Table 6.1. Essentials vs Conditional Essentiality amino Acids
167
Table 6.2. Essential Amino Acids Daily Intake.
169
Table 6.3. General Source of Protein Intake for Everyday
170
Table 7.1. Reaction Rate Equations
183
ii
i
ii
i
FOREWORDS
This is the first time I wrote a text book of general chemistry 2 for
science students at University Level. This book is intended to help students in
studying chemistry especially those who studying chemistry at undergraduate
levels. This book was written in English in order to help students of bilingual
classes in Medan and around the country. There is a need for writing
chemistry text based on local curriculumn in English so that students would be
able to comprehend the materials presented. Of course, this book is urgently
required, since the State University of Medan has introduced a new class
which is called bilingual classes. This particular graduates are intended to
teach students at senior high school levels, where international schools and
international standard based schools (Sekolah Berstandar International or
SBI) have been introduced recently by Indonesian gevernment at several
senior high schools through out the country. These new programs required
teachers who are capable in teaching subject matters in English, especially
chemistry, physics, biology and mathematics. I hope this book will able to
assit and give contributions to students who studying chemistry at second
semester in Unimed and other universities, since this modul was written as
clear as possible in English.
At last, I would like to thank Rector of Unimed for facilitating,
funding and publishing this book.
Sincerely yours,
Wesly Hutabarat
ii
CONTENTS
Forewords
i
Contents
ii
Figures
ix
Tables
xi
CHAPTER 1. EQUILIBRIUM
1
1.1.
Calculating Formula Masses
3
1.2.
Shift in Equilibrium
3
1.3.
The Equilibrium Constant
4
1.4.
The Equilibrium Constant, Kp and Kc
6
1.5.
Magnitudes of K Values
8
1.6.
Equilibrioum Quation, Q
9
1.7.
Initial-Change-Equilibrium (I-C-E) Charts
9
1.8.
Acid-Base Equilibrium
10
1.9.
Acid Dissociation Xconstant
11
1.10. Base Dissociation Constant
11
1.11. Ion Product Constant
12
1.12. Conjugate Base expressions
12
CHAPTER 2. SOLUTION
15
2.1
15
Solution
2.1.1. Percentage
15
2.1.2. Mole Fraction
17
2.1.3. Molarity (Formality)
20
2.1.4. Molality
21
2.1.5. Normality
22
2.1.6. Osmolarity
22
2.1.7. Ionic Strength
23
2.2.
25
Acid-Base Reaction
2.2.1. Tradition Theories
26
iii
2.2.2. Arrhenius Theory
27
2.2.3. Bronsted-Lowry Theory
27
2.2.4. Lewis Acids- and Bases
28
2.2.5. Water
29
2.3.
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
30
2.3.1. Acids and Bases Ionization Constant
32
2.3.2. Calculation Percentage Composition From Formulas
32
2.4.
Determination of Formulas from Percentage
Composition Data
35
2.4.1. Using Percentage Composition
36
2.5.
Calculating Molecular Formula
37
2.6.
Nomenclatur of Acids & Bases
38
2.7.
Strong and Weak Acids and Bases
38
2.7.1. Properties of Acids and Bases
39
2.8.
41
Physical Properties
2.8.1. Colligative Properties of solutions
41
2.8.2. Vapor Pressures
42
2.8.3. Boiling Point Elevation
43
2.8.4. Freezing Point Depression
44
2.8.5. Osmosis
44
2.9.
45
Neutralization
CHAPTER 3. REDOX REACTION AND
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
3.1.
Redox Reactions
47
48
3.1.1. Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations
49
3.1.2. Ion-Electron Half-reaction Method
50
3.1.3. Balancing from Oxidation Number Changes
53
3.1.4. Balancing Halt-reaction by the Change
3.2.
in Oxidation Number Method
55
Electronegativity
57
iv
3.2.1. Electrode Potentials
3.2.3. Effect of pH on E
58
v
4.2.4. Fission and Fusion
93
4.2.5. Fusion
95
4.3. Application of Radioactive Isotopes in
Chemistry and Biology
95
4.3.1. Radiocarbon Dating
96
4.3.2. Radioactivity
98
4.4.
Uranium Deposits in Sedimentary Rock
100
4.4.1. Radioactive Waste
102
4.4.1.1. The Nature and Significance of Radioactive Waste
102
4.4.2. Pharmacokinetics
104
4.4.2.1. Sources of waste
105
4.4.2.2. Radiation Poisoning
111
4.4.2.3. Radioactive Pollution
111
4.4.2.4. Sign and Symptoms
112
4.4.2.5. Cutaneous Radioactive Syndrome
113
4.4.2.6. Exposure Levels
113
4.4.2.7. External vs Internal exposure
115
4.4.2.8. Nuclear Warfare and Bomb Tests
115
4.4.2.9. Nuclear Reactor Accidents
116
4.4.2.10. Ingestion and Inhalation
116
4.4.2.11. Hazards
117
4.4.2.12. Low Level Contamination
117
4.4.2.13. High Level Contamination
118
4.4.3.
118
The Main Source of Nuclear Energy
4.4.3.1. Element Plutonium-Pu
118
4.4.3.2. Plutonium Reactions
118
4.4.3.3. Uranium -238
119
4.4.3.4. Nuclear Energy Applications
120
4.4.3.5. Breeder Reactors
120
4.4.3.6. Radiation Shielding
120
vi
4.4.3.7. Downblending
121
4.4.3.8. Nuclear Weapons
121
4.4.3.9. Radioactive and Decay
123
4.4.3.10. Radium Series
123
CHAPTER 5. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
128
5.1.
128
Hydrocarbon
5.1.1. Homolog Series
129
5.1.2. Types of Formula
129
5.2.
130
Bonding in Alkane
5.2.1. Mthane, CH4
131
5.2.2. Promotion of an Electron
132
5.3.
133
Ethane, C2H6
5.3.1. Free Rotation of Carbon-Carbon Single Bond
134
5.3.2. Other Alkanes
135
5.3.3.1. Alkanes: Simple- Chain
135
5.3.3.2. Strutural Isomerism
136
5.3.3.3. Alkanes: Branched-Chains
136
5.3.3.4. Cycloalkanes
138
5.3.3.4.1. Substituted Cycloalkanes
138
5.3.3.4.2. Reactions of Alkanes
138
5.4.
139
Molecular Shape
5.4.1. The Formation of Single Covalent Bonds
139
5.4.2. Lone Electron Pairs
141
5.4.3. Linear and Planar Shapes
142
5.4.3.1. Electron-Poor Atoms
142
5.4.3.2. Five and Six Groups
143
5.5.
144
Alkenes
5.5.1. Structure
144
5.5.2. Naming Alkenes
145
5.5.3. Physical Properties
146
vii
5.5.4. Isomerism
146
5.5.5. EZ Notation
147
5.5.6. Alkenes Formation
150
5.5.6.1. Thermal Decomposition of Alkanes
150
5.5.6.2. Hydrogenation of Alkynes
150
5.5.6.3. Reaction of Halogenated Derivatives with Zinc Metal
151
5.5.6.4. Dehydrogenation of Mono-Halogenated Derivatives
151
5.5.6.5. Dehydration of Alcohols
152
5.6.6.6. Synthesis of Alkene by Dehydration of an Alcohol
152
5.5.6.7. Wittig Reaction
153
5.6.
153
Reaction of Alkenes
5.6.1. Hydrogen Addition or Hydrogenation
153
5.6.2. X2 addition or Halogenations
153
5.6.3. HX Addition
154
5.6.4. H2O Addition
154
5.6.5. HBr Addition in the Presence of Peroxides
154
5.7. Test for Unsaturation
155
5.7.1. Reduction with Hydrogen
155
5.7.2. Reaction with Hydrogen Bromide
155
5.7.3. Poly (ethene)
156
5.7.4. Poly (propene)
156
5.7.5. Poly (chloroethene) PVC
157
5.7.6. Poly(fluoroethene)
157
5.8.
157
Alcohols
5.8.1. The Fractional Group and its Test
158
5.8.2. Reactions of Alcohols
158
5.9.
Types of Alcohol
159
5.10. Aldehydes and Ketones
159
5.10.1.General Formula
159
5.11. Carboxylic Acids
160
viii
5.11.1. The Relationship between Alcohols,
Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids
160
5.12. Cycloalkenes
161
5.13. Alkynes
162
CHAPTER 6. BIOCHEMISTRY
164
6.1.
165
Amino Acids and Proteins
6.1.1. Amino Acids
165
6.1.2. Recommended Daily Intake
168
6.1.3. Use of Essential Amino Acids
169
6.2.
171
Fatty Acids
6.2.1. Functions
171
6.3.
Vitamin A
172
6.4.
Thiamine
173
CHAPTER 7. REACTION RATES
174
7.1. Introduction
174
7.2. Rate of Equation
175
7.3. Zeroth Order Reactions
175
7.4. First-order Reactions
177
7.5. Second-order Equations
180
7.6. The Activation Energy
184
7.7. Collision Theory of Reaction Rates
187
LITERATURE
189
ix
Figures
Figure 3.1. pH Meter
Figure 3.2. Daniel
63
x
Figure 5.2. Electronic Configuration
131
Figure 5.3. Electron Promotion
132
Figure. 5.4. Sp3 Hybrization
132
Figure 5.5. Covalent Bonding in Methane Molecules
134
Figure 5.6. Bonding Orbital in Ethane Molecules
134
Figure 5.7. Sigma Bond in Ethane Molecules
134
Figure 5.8. Ethane molecules
134
Figure. 5. 9.Line Structure of 2-Methyl and Hexane
136
Figure 5.10. Hybrid Orbital of Methane
139
Figure. 5.11. Methane 3D Structure
140
Figure 5.12. CH4 is Tetrahedral Molecules
141
Figure 5.13. The Lone Pair Electron of Ammonia
142
Figure 5.14. Linear Shape in Carbon Dioxides
143
Figure 5.15. Bending Shape in Sulfur Dioxides
143
Figure 3.16. Three Dimension Shape-3D
144
Figure 5.17. Cis-Trans But-2-ene
146
Figure 5.18. E-Z -3-methylpent-2-ene
149
Figure 5.1.9. Comparison of E-Z with Cis-Trans
149
Figure 5.20. Diagram for Isomers, Constitutional
Isomers and Steroisomers
163
Figure 6.1. Essential vs. Conditional Essentiality Amino Acids
167
Figure 7.1. Zeroth Order Reaction
176
Figure 7.2. First Order Reaction
179
Figure 7.3. Second Order Reactions
182
Figure 7.4. Variations of Enthalpy in a Reaction
185
Figure 7.5. Collision Diameter of Molecules
185
Figure 7.6. Different Directions for Two Colliding Molecules
186
xi
Tables
Table.1.1. Q Values Compared with K
9
Table 1.2. I-C-E Chart
10
Table 2.1. Ionic Strength of Some Compounds
24
Table 3.1. The Common Oxidation Number of Some Elements
49
Table 3.2. Oxidation State Changes of Iron and Chlorate
56
Table 3.3. Potential Electrode of Half-Reactions
59
Table 3.4. Increasing Strength of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
71
Table 3.5. Standard Reduction Potential Eo for Half-cells
at 298.15 K (pH=0)
72
Table 4.1. Masses of Some Fundamental Particles
91
Table 4.2. Shows the Uranium Series of Radioactive
Decays of 29892U to
206
82Pb.
93
Table 4.3. Binding Energy of Isotopes
94
Table 4.4. Isotopes Used in Chemistry and Biology
96
Table 4.5. Long Lived Fision Products of Tc Series
103
Table 4.6. Medium Lived Fission Products of Eu-155 Series
103
Table 4.7. Uranium Grades in ppm
104
Table 4.8. Fissions Products of Actinides Series
104
Table. 4.9. The Most Stable Isotopes of Uranium-232
107
Table 4.10.Toxicity of Uranium Radiations
110
Table 4.11. Radiation Symptons after Exposuring
to Radioactive Radiation
114
Table 4.12. Uranium-238 Characteristics
119
Table 4.13. Uranium Ores
123
Table 4.14. Uranium-238 Decaying Products
124
Table 4.15. Uranium Isotopes
125
Table 4.16. The Most Stable Isotopes of Plutonium
125
Table 5.1.
129
Bond Energy
xii
Table 5.2. Prefix for Naming Alkanes
135
Table 5.3. Orbital Geometries
141
Table 5.4. Naming Alcohols
157
Table 5.5. Formula and Nomenclature of Aldehydes and Ketones
159
Table 5.6. Naming Carxyclic Acids
160
Table 5.7. Common Functional Groups
163
Table 6.1. Essentials vs Conditional Essentiality amino Acids
167
Table 6.2. Essential Amino Acids Daily Intake.
169
Table 6.3. General Source of Protein Intake for Everyday
170
Table 7.1. Reaction Rate Equations
183