The Error Analysis of Learners' Grammatical Errors in Paragraph and Narrative Writing Class.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.…...…...…..………...………i

TABLE OF CONTENTS……..…………...………..iii

ABSTRACT………...……..………..………iv

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Background of the Study………...………...……….…..1

Statement of the Problem……….4

Purpose of the Study………....4

Methods of Research………4

Organization of the Thesis…..……….5

CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK……..………...………..6

CHAPTER THREE: THE ERROR ANALYSIS OF LEARNERS’ GRAMMATICAL ERRORS IN PARAGRAPH AND NARRATIVE WRITING CLASS.……...….13

CHAPTER FOUR: CONCLUSION………...……….………..29

BIBLIOGRAPHY ………...……...…….………..…..35

APPENDICES: I : Interwiev………37

II : Samples of Errors……….……….40

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ABSTRACT

Dalam skripsi ini, saya menganalisis kesalahan-kesalahan yang dibuat oleh mahasiswa/i ketika mereka membuat karangan bahasa Inggris di kelas Paragraph and Narrative Writing di Universitas Kristen Maranatha. Kesalahan yang dianalisa oleh saya adalah kesalahan-kesalahan pada tata bahasa. Kesalahan-kesalahan pada tata bahasa terdiri dari tiga belas kategori. Dari tiga belas kategori kesalahan, ada sepuluh kategori kesalahan yang dibuat oleh para mahasiswa/i. Tiap mahasiswa sekurang-kurangnya melakukan kesalahan pada dua kategori kesalahan. Selain kesalahan pada tata bahasa, saya juga menganalisis faktor-faktor yang menyebabkan para mahasiswa/i membuat kesalahan. Ada tiga faktor yang menyebabkan para mahasiswa/i membuat kesalahan ketika mereka sedang membuat karangan.

Karangan-karangan yang saya analisis diperoleh dari delapan belas mahasiswa/i di kelas tersebut. Dari kedelapan belas mahasiswa/i tersebut, semuanya melakukan kesalahan-kesalahan pada tata bahasa ketika mereka sedang membuat karangan bahasa Inggris. Kesalahan yang paling sering dibuat oleh mahasiswa/i adalah kesalahan pada to be. Sementara, faktor yang paling sering menyebabkan para mahasiswa/i melakukan kesalahan adalah faktor kemampuan para mahasiswa/i yang kurang terhadap bahasa Inggris.

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APPENDICES

I. INTERVIEW

1. Do you like writing? Why?

Like Dislike

The number of learners

11 Can express their feelings

7 Often find difficulty in elaborating their ideas, expressing their words, or

have no idea to be elaborated

From eighteen learners, there are eleven learners who like writing as they can express their feelings in their writing. There are seven learners who dislike writing as they often find difficulty in elaborating their ideas, and expressing their words. Besides, they have no idea to be elaborated in their writing.

2. What difficulties do you find in the Paragraph and Narrative Writing Class?

Grammar Elaborating Ideas Both

The number of learners 11 4 3

From the eighteen learners, there are eleven learners who find difficulty in grammar. There are four learners who find difficulty in elaborating ideas. Moreover, there are three learners who find difficulty in both the grammar and elaborating their ideas.

3. Do you realize that you were making an error?

Yes No

The number of learners - 18

From the eighteen learners, there is no learner who realizes it when making such errors. All of the learners do not realize it when making such errors. 4. In expressing your words, do you think in English or in Indonesian?

English Indonesia Sometimes English sometimes

Indonesian

The number of learners 12 6

From eighteen learners, there are twelve learners who think in Indonesian when expressing their words. There are six learners who sometimes think in Indonesian and sometimes in English when expressing their words.

5. What causes you to make such errors?

Influence of first language

Lack of Motivation

Poor Aptitude

The number of errors (out of 73 errors totally)

28 4 41

Data B D. 1a, 2a, 3a, 4, 5

E. 1a, 3a I. 1f, 2c – f

J i, j

A. f E. 1c, 2a - b

A. a-e C, F, G, H D. 1b, 2b, 3b E. 1b, 2c - d, 3b

I. 1a – e, 2a – b J a - h

From 73 errors, there are twenty eight errors which are caused by the influence of the learners’ first language. Besides, there are four errors which are caused by the lack of motivation of the learners. Furthermore, there are forty one errors which are caused by the poor aptitude of the learners.

II. SAMPLES

OF

ERRORS

A. Errors in tenses

Errors in the use of the simple present tense a. Last Saturday…And I feel so scared.

b. Last month, I go to the Kotabaru Parahyangan.

c. When I…two months ago…they ask me to close my eyes. d. I…surprised and that man fall down because...hit that man. e. The famous people who can interest…Elizabeth

Blackwell…She study in Geneva Medical School…. f. Last year…he go...Jember city.

B. Errors in determiners

1. Errors in the absence of the determiner ‘a’ a. We often go together to _ mall.

b. …when you…a ballad song or _ mellow song. c. He is _ very handsome and clever boy.

d. We must choose _ comfortable place.

e. One reason that Bali is _ very dangerous place…. f. I love _ small house.

g. The colour is black, which is a colour for _ car. h. There is _ kitchen.

i. … she can make _ common opinion…. 2. Errors in the absence of the determiner ‘the’

a. They live without _ family around them. b. She always helps my mother in _ shop.

C. Errors in possessive structures

Errors in the absence of an apostrophe ‘-s’ in the possessive structure

a. The right of my room is my parents_ room. b. My friend_ name is Mila.

c. My first sister_ name is Silvia…. D. Errors in prepositions

1 Errors in the use of the preposition ‘to’:

a. It…depends to our economical to pay it. b. …people…come to Bandung to shopping. 2 Errors in the absence of the preposition ‘for’:

a. I’ll wait _ him until….

b. It…from some people to make movie which…interesting _ many people.

3. Errors in the use of the preposition ‘in’: a. It depends in yourself too.

b. …in the other side, games can…. 4. Errors in the use of the preposition ‘with’:

a. ...your family is very proud with you.

b. There are so many reasons why I believe with Jesus Christ. c. They…afraid with commitment.

5. Errors in the absence of the preposition ‘about’: a. My opinion _ wearing sandals….

b. I don’t care _ it because I just like him….

E. Errors in derivations

1. Errors in the use of the adjective

a. My imagination house is an interesting place.

b. She is very confidence when she sings in a concert. c. I feel comfort with my family.

2. Errors in the use of the noun

a. For example, I can know…in technology, historical, etc. b. They need to have adaptation in their surround.

c. …develop not only…right brain but also…left brain… It’s not good without any balancing.

d. …don’t think if women…just a disturb and more. 3. Errors in the use of the adverb

a. When I appeared, the other friends direct appear too. b. Fortunately, my motor-cycle was not broken serious.

F. Errors in pronouns

Errors in the use of pronoun

a. I always need he but he lives in Malaysia now. b. …but their can be my friends.

c. They ask me to accompany she.

G. Errors in gerund or ‘to infinitive’

1. Errors in the use of the gerund

a. How to try being honest in everything you do.

b. I want having companionship and someone to spend my

life with.

c. If I can speaking English well….

2. Errors in the use of the ‘to infinitive’

a. I will to tell you everything about my big house.

b. …after that, we must to do the Taraweh. H. Errors in participial phrases

Errors in the use of the past participle instead of present participle a. We stayed in a hotel after reached Bali.

b. I don’t feel any scary feeling although some people think that saw the ghost is very scary.

c. After recorded, he stopped to exist in music industries.

I. Errors in to be

1. Errors in the use of to be

a. In my house, there is a lots of rooms b. His hobbies is basketball, swimming…. c. She is always gives me some advices…. d. My apartment is consists of many rooms…. e. Sandals is more various than shoes.

f. My father and my mother is good parents 2. Errors in the absence of to be

a. I _ looking many kinds of t-shirt, bag, and shoes at there. b. Sometimes we _ bored with our work….

c. We _ still friends until now. d. Now she _ in Maranatha

e. She _ never angry….

f. … because it _ simple.

G. Errors in spelling

a. They are real and eksist.

b. I go to BTC if my friend us me to…. c. That’s a bad habbit.

d. We look like the wirld person.

e. You will find three bad rooms for me, my parents….

f. I got into Junior High School, my friends mostly are

christiant.

g. A man must think if women…usefull, not weak. h. I have a lot of friends…helpfull.

i. She takes the faculty of manajemen. j. I choose modern minimalis style.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

As human beings, people need to interact with others because they cannot live alone. They need to communicate with others. People use language to communicate with others, either spoken or written. For example, a person uses body language to communicate with others. It is still a language, although the speaker uses body language to communicate. Without language, their lives would be meaningless. If they cannot communicate with others, they have to live alone and they have to do everything by themselves. Therefore, language is very useful in their daily lives. Language also has an important role in people’s communication owing to the fact that they can express their needs, their ideas, and their feelings through language. As a result, there are many people who want to learn a different language aside from their own language. Learning a foreign language can give many advantages for people. It will make it easier for them in getting a job, in getting opportunities to study abroad, in raising their level of career, and in their social communication.

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Learning one's first language is quite different from learning a foreign language because learning a foreign language normally begins after the learning of one’s mother tongue, which is one’s first language. Making errors in learning a foreign language is very common for the foreign language learners for the reason that errors may occur anytime, even when the learners have already tried their best to avoid making the errors (Corder 20). The foreign language learners also realize that sometimes they commit errors even when they use their native language. However, making errors can be avoided by the foreign language learners in order to result in successful language learning.

Based on the theory that errors may occur anytime, even when the foreign language learners have already tried their best to avoid making the errors, I am interested in analyzing what kind of errors that the English learners produce and the factors that lead them to make the errors. I choose to analyze the English learners’ errors in an English writing class in Maranatha Christian University for my thesis, considering that it will be easier for me to analyze the data from an English writing class than from other English classes. For example, if I want to analyze the errors in a conversation class, I would need to make a recording of each student’s conversation, which means it would take a lot of time to record it. And when analyzing the errors, I would need to listen to the recording while writing down the errors at the same time. It will be better for me realistically to analyze the errors in writing class because the data is in writing and therefore easier for me to reread to analysis it.

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To be more specific, I choose to gather data from the Paragraph and Narrative Writing class in the first semester at Maranatha Christian University for the reason that the English learners in this class are new in composing paragraphs in the English language. In most of the English writing classes, English learners are given an example before writing and they only have to change some parts to produce their own writing. For example, in making Curriculum Vitae, they do not need to make many changes, they only have to change their profiles. However, it is different with the Paragraph and Narrative Writing Class considering that most of the topics being discussed in this class deal with their experiences, in which they have to narrate their experiences using paragraphs. The topics are families, journeys, favorite places, school, friends, and the like. Consequently, each learner will create different compositions although they are given an example before writing seeing that each learner has different experiences to be narrated into paragraphs.

To support my thesis, I choose to use the psycholinguistics theory, considering that psycholinguistics discusses about psychological factors of the learners in the process of learning a foreign language, so it can be related to factors that cause the learners to make errors when they produce English paragraphs in the Paragraph and Narrative Writing Class. Furthermore, I use error analysis as my approach because the topic of my thesis deals with the English learners’ errors in writing in the Paragraph and Narrative Writing Class.

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Statement of the Problem

In this thesis I would like to discuss the following problems:

1. What kinds of errors do the learners make in the Paragraph and Narrative Writing class?

2. What factors lead the learners to make such errors?

Purpose of the study

In this thesis I would like to identify:

1. The kinds of errors the learners make in the Paragraph and Narrative Writing class.

2. The factors that lead the learners to make such errors.

Method of Research

The method of research used in this thesis follows this procedure. First, to gather the data, I ask for permission from the lecturer of Paragraph and Narrative Writing Class at Maranatha Christian University to use the learners’ writing as my data. Second, with the lecturer’s permission, I collect and classify the learners’ writing. In this case, I gain the data from Paragraph and Narrative Writing class. Third, I analyze the data by focusing on the grammatical errors the learners make in their writing. Fourth, I interview the eighteen learners to get the factors that lead the learners to make such errors. Finally, I draw a conclusion based on the discussion of the data.

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Organization of the Thesis

This thesis consists of four chapters. Chapter one is the Introduction. It contains the Background of the Study, Statement of the Problem, Purpose of the Study, Method of Research, and Organization of the Thesis. Chapter two provides the linguistic theories related to error analysis. Chapter three consists of the discussion of the errors made by language learners in the Paragraph and Narrative Writing class in the first semester. Chapter four is the Conclusion, which consists of my personal opinion based on discussion of the data. The thesis ends with the Bibliography and the Appendices. In Bibliography, I list the references that I use to support my thesis. In Appendices, there are samples of the students’ writing and the interview questions.

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CHAPTER FOUR

CONCLUSION

In this chapter, I would like to make a conclusion from my analysis of the grammatical errors that the English learners in the Paragraph and Narrative Writing Class produce and the factors that lead the learners to make the errors. The eighteen learners make errors when they compose English paragraphs. The learners make errors of various types, and the errors are caused by certain factors. From the twelve types of grammatical errors enumerated by Norrish (83-85), there are nine types of grammatical errors which the learners in the Paragraph and Narrative Writing Class make when composing the English paragraphs. The learners make errors in tenses, determiners, possessive structures, prepositions, derivations, pronouns, gerund or ‘to infinitive’, spelling and participial phrases. The learners do not make errors in the punctuation, capitalization, and comparative & superlative construction. There is a type of grammatical errors, which the learners make when composing the English paragraphs but it is not enumerated by Norrish. The error is in to be. The factors that cause the learners to

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make such errors are the influence of the learners’ first language, the lack of motivation of the learners, and the poor aptitude of the learners.

From eighteen learners, there are six learners who make errors in the verb tenses. All of the learners make errors in the use of the simple present tense. The factors that cause the learners to make such errors are the poor aptitude of the learners and the lack of motivation of the learners. There are five learners who make such errors because of their poor aptitude of English: they lack of knowledge of the use of the verb tense (see Appendix II part A a – e). There is a learner who makes such an error because of the lack of motivation of the learner in writing. The lack of motivation makes the learner not pay attention to the lecturer’s explanation in the class (see Appendix II part A f).

From eighteen learners, there are eleven learners who make errors in the determiners. There are nine learners who make errors in the absence of the determiner ‘a’ and two learners who make errors in the absence of the determiner ‘the’. All of the learners make such errors because of the influence of their first language: they rarely uses determiners in Indonesian (see Appendix II part B).

From eighteen learners, there are three learners who make errors in the possessive structures. The learners make the errors in the absence of an apostrophe ‘-s’. The factor that causes the learners to make such errors is the poor aptitude of the learners: the lack of knowledge of the learners in the use of an apostrophe ‘-s’ (see Appendix II part C).

From eighteen learners, there are eleven learners who make errors in the prepositions. There are two learners who make errors in the use of the preposition

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‘to’, two learners who make errors in the absence of the preposition ‘for’, two learners who make errors in the use of the preposition ‘in’, three learners who make errors in the use of the preposition ‘with’, and two learners who make errors in the absence of the preposition ‘about’. The factors that cause the learners to make such errors are the influence of the learners’ first language and the poor aptitude of the learners. There are eight learners who make such errors because of the influence of their first language: they make the English sentence using the grammar in Indonesian (see Appendix II part D 1a, 2a, 3a, 4, and 5). There are three learners who make such errors because of their poor aptitude of English grammar: they lack knowledge of the use of the prepositions (see Appendix II part D 1b, 2b, and 3b).

From eighteen learners, there are nine learners who make errors in the derivations. There are three learners who make errors in the use of the adjective, four learners who make errors in the use of the noun, and two learners who make errors in the use of the adverb. The factors that cause the learners to make such errors are the influence of the learners’ first language, the lack of motivation of the learners, and the poor aptitude of the learners. There are two learners who make such errors because they are influenced by their first language: they think in Indonesian to express their ideas when composing English paragraphs (see Appendix II part E 1a and 3a). There are three learners who make such errors because of their lack of motivation. The lack of motivation causes the learners not to pay attention to the lecturer’s explanation in the class (see Appendix II part E 1c, and 2a - b). There are four learners who make such errors because of their

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poor aptitude of English: they lack knowledge of derivations (see Appendix part E 1b, 2c -d, and 3b).

From eighteen learners, there are three learners who make errors in the pronouns. The factor that causes the learners to make such errors is the poor aptitude of the learners. All of the learners make such errors because of their poor aptitude of English: they misunderstand the grammatical rules of the pronouns (see Appendix II part F).

From eighteen learners, there are five learners who make errors in the gerund or the ‘to infinitive’. There are three learners who make errors in the use of the gerund, and two learners who make errors in the use of the ‘to infinitive’. The factor that causes the learners to make such errors is the poor aptitude of the learners. All of the learners make such errors because of their poor aptitude: they are confused about the use of the gerund and the ‘to infinitive’ (see Appendix II part G).

From eighteen learners, there are three learners who make errors in the participial phrases. All of the learners make errors in the use of the past participle instead of the present participle. The factor that causes the learners to make such errors is the poor aptitude of the learners. All of the learners make such errors because of their poor aptitude of English grammar. They lack knowledge of the use of the participial phrases (see Appendix II part H).

From eighteen learners, there are twelve learners who make errors in to be. There are six learners who make errors in the use of to be, and six learners who make errors in the absence of to be. The factor that causes the learners to make

32

such errors is the poor aptitude of the learners and the influence of the learners’ first language. There are seven learners who make such errors because of their poor aptitude: they lack of knowledge of to be (see Appendix II part I 1a – e and 2a - b). There are five learners who make such errors because of the influence of their first language: They are not accustomed to use English (see Appendix II part I 1f and 2c - f).

From eighteen learners, there are ten learners who make errors in spelling. The factors that cause the learners to make such errors are the poor aptitude of the learners and the influence of the learners’ first language. There are eight learners who make such errors because of their poor aptitude of English grammar: they lack knowledge of spelling some English words (see Appendix II part J a - h). There are two learners who make such errors because of the influence of their first language: they express their words using Indonesian grammar when composing English paragraphs (see Appendix II part J i and j).

After analyzing the data, I find that the most common error that the learners make when composing English paragraphs is in to be. There are twelve learners who make errors in to be. The most common factor that causes the learners to make errors is the poor aptitude of the learners. There are forty one errors which occurred because of their poor aptitude of English grammar.

I hope this thesis can give benefits for the readers. The learners need good aptitude and good motivation when learning English. If the learners have good aptitude of English grammar, they will better understand about the correct grammar that they have to use in their writing. The learners need good aptitude

33

when composing English paragraphs because composing paragraphs is not only about narrating their own stories, but also about using appropriate grammar in one’s writing. If the learners have good motivation in writing, the learners will pay attention to what the lecturer says in the class. Furthermore, the learners have to avoid interference of their first language because each language has its own grammar. The learners should not consider that the Indonesian grammar is identical with English grammar.

34

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abisamra, Nada. “An Analysis of Errors in Arabic Speakers’ English Writings.” nadabs.tripod.com. January 2003. 28 September 2007

<http://abisamra03.tripod.com/nada/languageacq-erroranalysis.html>. Corder, S. P. “The Significance of Learners’ Errors.” 1967. in Jack C. Richards

ed. Error Analysis. London: Longman Group Limited, 1974.

---. “Idiosyncratic Dialects and Error Analysis.” 1971. in Jack. C Richards ed. Error Analysis. London: Longman Group Limited, 1974.

Holden, Susan ed. Focus on the Learner. Great Britain: Modern English Publications, 1983.

Jain, Mahavir. “Error Analysis: Source, Cause, and Significance.” 1969. in Jack C. Richards ed. Error Analysis. London: Longman Group Limited, 1974. Littlewood, William. T. Foreign and Second Language Learning. New York:

Cambridge University Press, 1984.

Norrish, John. Language Learners and Their Errors. London and Basingstoke: The Macmillan Press Limited, 1983.

Picket, Joseph P. et al ed. “The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language Fourth Edition.” Bartleby.com. 2002. Houghton Mifflin Company. 12 October 2007

<http://www.bartleby.com/61/7/A0510700.html>. 35

“Psycholinguistics.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 13 December 2005. GNU Free Documentation License. 28 September 2007

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholinguistics>.

“The Compact Oxford English Dictionary.” Askoxford.com. 23 June 2005. Oxford University Press. 26 August 2007

<http://www.askoxford.com/dictionaries/?view=uk>.

36

‘to’, two learners who make errors in the absence of the preposition ‘for’, two learners who make errors in the use of the preposition ‘in’, three learners who make errors in the use of the preposition ‘with’, and two learners who make errors in the absence of the preposition ‘about’. The factors that cause the learners to make such errors are the influence of the learners’ first language and the poor aptitude of the learners. There are eight learners who make such errors because of the influence of their first language: they make the English sentence using the grammar in Indonesian (see Appendix II part D 1a, 2a, 3a, 4, and 5). There are three learners who make such errors because of their poor aptitude of English grammar: they lack knowledge of the use of the prepositions (see Appendix II part D 1b, 2b, and 3b).

From eighteen learners, there are nine learners who make errors in the derivations. There are three learners who make errors in the use of the adjective, four learners who make errors in the use of the noun, and two learners who make errors in the use of the adverb. The factors that cause the learners to make such errors are the influence of the learners’ first language, the lack of motivation of the learners, and the poor aptitude of the learners. There are two learners who make such errors because they are influenced by their first language: they think in Indonesian to express their ideas when composing English paragraphs (see Appendix II part E 1a and 3a). There are three learners who make such errors because of their lack of motivation. The lack of motivation causes the learners not to pay attention to the lecturer’s explanation in the class (see Appendix II part E 1c, and 2a - b). There are four learners who make such errors because of their

poor aptitude of English: they lack knowledge of derivations (see Appendix part E 1b, 2c -d, and 3b).

From eighteen learners, there are three learners who make errors in the pronouns. The factor that causes the learners to make such errors is the poor aptitude of the learners. All of the learners make such errors because of their poor aptitude of English: they misunderstand the grammatical rules of the pronouns (see Appendix II part F).

From eighteen learners, there are five learners who make errors in the gerund or the ‘to infinitive’. There are three learners who make errors in the use of the gerund, and two learners who make errors in the use of the ‘to infinitive’. The factor that causes the learners to make such errors is the poor aptitude of the learners. All of the learners make such errors because of their poor aptitude: they are confused about the use of the gerund and the ‘to infinitive’ (see Appendix II part G).

From eighteen learners, there are three learners who make errors in the participial phrases. All of the learners make errors in the use of the past participle instead of the present participle. The factor that causes the learners to make such errors is the poor aptitude of the learners. All of the learners make such errors because of their poor aptitude of English grammar. They lack knowledge of the use of the participial phrases (see Appendix II part H).

From eighteen learners, there are twelve learners who make errors in to be. There are six learners who make errors in the use of to be, and six learners who make errors in the absence of to be. The factor that causes the learners to make

such errors is the poor aptitude of the learners and the influence of the learners’ first language. There are seven learners who make such errors because of their poor aptitude: they lack of knowledge of to be (see Appendix II part I 1a – e and 2a - b). There are five learners who make such errors because of the influence of their first language: They are not accustomed to use English (see Appendix II part I 1f and 2c - f).

From eighteen learners, there are ten learners who make errors in spelling. The factors that cause the learners to make such errors are the poor aptitude of the learners and the influence of the learners’ first language. There are eight learners who make such errors because of their poor aptitude of English grammar: they lack knowledge of spelling some English words (see Appendix II part J a - h). There are two learners who make such errors because of the influence of their first language: they express their words using Indonesian grammar when composing English paragraphs (see Appendix II part J i and j).

After analyzing the data, I find that the most common error that the learners make when composing English paragraphs is in to be. There are twelve learners who make errors in to be. The most common factor that causes the learners to make errors is the poor aptitude of the learners. There are forty one errors which occurred because of their poor aptitude of English grammar.

I hope this thesis can give benefits for the readers. The learners need good aptitude and good motivation when learning English. If the learners have good aptitude of English grammar, they will better understand about the correct grammar that they have to use in their writing. The learners need good aptitude

when composing English paragraphs because composing paragraphs is not only about narrating their own stories, but also about using appropriate grammar in one’s writing. If the learners have good motivation in writing, the learners will pay attention to what the lecturer says in the class. Furthermore, the learners have to avoid interference of their first language because each language has its own grammar. The learners should not consider that the Indonesian grammar is identical with English grammar.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abisamra, Nada. “An Analysis of Errors in Arabic Speakers’ English Writings.” nadabs.tripod.com. January 2003. 28 September 2007

<http://abisamra03.tripod.com/nada/languageacq-erroranalysis.html>. Corder, S. P. “The Significance of Learners’ Errors.” 1967. in Jack C. Richards

ed. Error Analysis. London: Longman Group Limited, 1974.

---. “Idiosyncratic Dialects and Error Analysis.” 1971. in Jack. C Richards ed. Error Analysis. London: Longman Group Limited, 1974.

Holden, Susan ed. Focus on the Learner. Great Britain: Modern English Publications, 1983.

Jain, Mahavir. “Error Analysis: Source, Cause, and Significance.” 1969. in Jack C. Richards ed. Error Analysis. London: Longman Group Limited, 1974. Littlewood, William. T. Foreign and Second Language Learning. New York:

Cambridge University Press, 1984.

Norrish, John. Language Learners and Their Errors. London and Basingstoke: The Macmillan Press Limited, 1983.

Picket, Joseph P. et al ed. “The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language Fourth Edition.” Bartleby.com. 2002. Houghton Mifflin Company. 12 October 2007

<http://www.bartleby.com/61/7/A0510700.html>. 35

“Psycholinguistics.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 13 December 2005. GNU Free Documentation License. 28 September 2007

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholinguistics>.

“The Compact Oxford English Dictionary.” Askoxford.com. 23 June 2005. Oxford University Press. 26 August 2007