An Error Analysis in Using Direct and Indirect Speech Made Twelfth Year Students of Hospitality Accomodation Program, SMK Raksana 2 Medan

AN ERROR ANALYSIS IN USING DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

MADE BY TWELFTH YEAR STUDENTS OF HOSPITALITY

ACCOMMODATION PROGRAM, SMK RAKSANA 2 MEDAN

A THESIS

BY

RASINGAN SURANTA PURBA REG. NO. 100705053

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

FACULTY OF CULTURAL STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA MEDAN 2015

AN ERROR ANALYSIS IN USING DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

MADE TWELFTH YEAR STUDENTS OF HOSPITALITY

ACCOMODATION PROGRAM, SMK RAKSANA 2 MEDAN

A THESIS

BY

RASINGAN SURANTA PURBA REG. NO. 100705053

SUPERVISOR CO-SUPERVISOR

Drs. H. Chairul Husni, M. Ed. TESOL Drs. Yulianus Harefa, M. Ed.TESOL

NIP. 195708031984041004 NIP. 196107031986011001

Submitted to Faculty of Cultural Studies University of Sumatera Utara Medan in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Sarjana Sastra from Department of English

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

FACULTY OF CULTURAL STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA MEDAN 2015

Approved by the Department of English, Faculty of Cultural Studies University of Sumatera Utara (USU) Medan as thesis for The Sarjana Sastra Examination.

Head, Secretary,

Dr. H. Muhizar Muchtar, M.S Rahmadsyah Rangkuti, M.A., Ph.D NIP. 195411171980031002 NIP. 197502092008121002

Accepted by the Board of Examiners in partial fulfillments of requirements for the degree of Sarjana Sastra from the Department of English, Faculty of Cultural Studies University of Sumatera Utara, Medan.

The examination is held in Department of English Faculty of Cultural Studies University of Sumatera Utara on Thursday, August 27, 2015.

Dean of Faculty of Cultural Studies University of Sumatera Utara

Dr. H. Syahron Lubis, MA NIP.195110131976031001

Board of Examiners

Dr. H. Syahron Lubis, MA ……….

Dr. H. Muhizar Muchtar, M.S ……….

Rahmadsyah Rangkuti, M.A. Ph.D ……….

Drs. H. Chairul Husni, M. Ed. TESOL ……….

AUTHOR’S DECLARATION

I, RASINGAN SURANTA PURBA DECLARE THAT I AM THE SOLE AUTHOR OF THIS THESIS EXCEPT WHERE REFERENCE IS MADE IN THE TEXT OF THIS THESIS. THIS THESIS CONTAINS NO MATERIAL PUBLISHED ELSEWHERE OR EXTRACTED IN WHOLE OR IN PART FROM A THESIS BY WHICH I HAVE QUALIFIED FOR OR AWARDED ANOTHER DEGREE. NO OTHER PERSON’S WORK HAS BEEN USED WITHOUT DUE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT IN THE MAIN TEXT OF THIS THESIS. THIS THESIS HAS NOT BEEN SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF ANOTHER DEGREE IN ANY TERTIARY EDUCATION.

Signed :

COPYRIGHT DECLARATION

NAME : RASINGAN SURANTA PURBA

TITLE OF THESIS : AN ERROR ANALYSIS IN USING DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH MADE BY TWELFTH

YEAR STUDENTS OF HOSPITALITY

ACCOMODATION PROGRAM, SMK RAKSANA 2 MEDAN

QUALIFICATION : S-1/SARJANA SASTRA

DEPARTMENT : ENGLISH

I AM WILLING THAT MY THESIS SHOULD BE AVAILABLE FOR REPRODUCTION AT THE DISCRETATION OF THE LIBRARIAN OF DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, FACULTY OF CULTURAL STUDIES, UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA ON THE UNDERSTANDING THAT USERS ARE MADE AWARE OF THEIR OBLIGATION UNDER THE LAW OF THE REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA.

Signed :

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, the writer would like to praise and give the greatest honor to the Heavently Father the Almighty God in the name of Jesus Christ who has always given His blessing in completing this thesis.

In this opportunity, the writer would like to express his high appreciation to Dr. H. Syahron Lubis, MA, the Dean of Faculty of Cultural Studies and his Supervisor, Drs. H. Chairul Husni, M. Ed. TESOL, and his Co-Supervisor, Drs. Yulianus Harefa, M. Ed. TESOL for their helps, advises, and for their details comments. The writer also thanks Dr. H. Muhizar Muchtar, M.S the Head of English Department, and Rahmadsyah Rangkuti, M.A. Ph.D as the Secretary of English Department who have given him facilities and opportunities in doing this thesis.

The writer wants to thank the Headmaster of SMK Swasta Raksana 2 Medan, Drs. Safarudin, the English teacher of SMK Raksana 2 Medan, Olanda Theresia Sianturi, S. Pd and also the twelfth year students of Hospitality Accomodation Program in SMK Raksana 2 Medan who have supported him to complete the thesis especially while doing the research in SMK Raksana 2 Medan.

The writer thanks to his parents Ir. K. Purba and K. br Sembiring who always support him to finish his study. He also thanks to his sisters: Erina Sari br Purba, S.Pi., Decy Handayani Sinarta br Purba, S.Pd., and Bali Ulina br Purba that always pray and support him.

The writer never forgets to thank his friends: Ayu Pangaribuan, S.S, Ivo Silalahi, S.S., Pandu Winata Lase, Martin Marbun, Jason Sinulingga, S.S., Atika Akhmar, S.S., Gratcia Deviana Sinabutar, S.S., Siti Rosmadiana, S.S., Yanri Veranika Alfiana Hailitik, A.Md., Mutiara Niken Nasution, S.M. and Puspita Sari, A.Md.,who always give him support in completing this thesis. Last but not least, many thanks are

delivered to his dear loving friends of batch 2010 in English Department who had been being with him in 5 years his life in campus.

Thank so much may God bless them all.

Medan, September 2015

The Writer,

Rasingan Suranta Purba Reg. No. 100705053

ABSTRAK

Skripsi berjudul “An Error Analysis in Using Direct and Indirect Speech Made by Twelfth Yea r Students of Hospita lity Accomoda tion Progra m, SMK Ra ksa na 2 Medan” merupakan suatu analisis tentang jenis-jenis kesalahan dan penyebab-penyebab kesalahan yang ditemukan dalam penggunaan kalimat langsung dan kalimat tidak langsung oleh siswa kelas duabelas jurusan akomodasi perhotelan di SMK Raksana 2 Medan. Landasan teori-teori yang dipakai adalah teori Jack Richard (1974) yang menjelaskan tentang jenis-jenis kesalahan (kinds of error) dan teori Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (1973) yang menjelaskan tentang penyebab-penyebab terjadinya kesalahan (causes of error). Penelitian ini menggunakan metode kuantitatif. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengukur tingkat kemampuan para siswa/i kelas duabelas jurusan akomodasi perhotelan dalam menggunakan kalimat langsung dan kalimat tidak langsung. Adapun objek penelitian dari skripsi ini adalah diambil dari pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang telah dijawab oleh para siswa. Hasil penemuan dari analisis jenis kesalahan ini menyatakan bahwa terdapat 12.15% omission, 10.24 % addition, 73.16% misinformation, dan 3.99% misordering. Analisis tentang penyebab kesalahan meyatakan bahwa terdapat 8.68% overgeneralization, 14.23% ignorance of rule restriction, 12.15% incomplete of rule restriction, dan 64.93% false concept hypothesis. Berdasarkan data diatas dapat disimpulkan bahwa misinformation (73.16%) sebagai jenis kesalahan dominan dan false concept hypothesis (64.93%) sebagai penyebab kesalahan dominan.

ABSTRACT

This thesis entitled “An Error Analysis in Using Direct and Indirect Speech Made by Twelfth Yea r Students of Hospita lity Accomoda tion Progra m, SMK Ra ksa na 2 Medan” is an analysis about the kinds of error and causes of error which found in the using of direct and direct speech made by the twelfth year students of hospitality accommodation program in SMK Raksana 2 Medan. It used the Jack Richard (1974) theory which explained about kinds of error and Dulay, Burt, and Krashen’s (1973) theory which explained about causes of error. This research used qualitative method. Aim of this study is to measure the ability of the twelfth year students of hospitality accommodation program in using direct and indirect speech. The object of the study in the discussion of this thesis is taken from the questions which are given to the students. The findings of kinds of error there were 12.15% omission, 10.24 % addition, 73.16% misinformation, and 3.99% misordering. The causes of error shown 8.68% overgeneralization, 14.23% ignorance of rule restriction, 12.15% incomplete of rule restriction, and 64.93% false concept hypothesis. Based on the data above, the writer concluded that the dominant kinds of error was misinformation (73.16%) and the dominant causes of error was false concept hypothesis (64.93%).

TABLE OF CONTENTS

AUTHOR DECLARATION………..i

COPYRIGHT DECLARATION………..ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT………iii

ABSTRAK………...v

ABSTRACT………vi

TABLE OF CONTENT………...vii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study………...1

1.2 Problem of the Study………..……… ………...3

1.3 Objective of the Study………..4

1.4 Scope of the Study………...……...4

1.5 Significance of the Study………..5

CHAPTER II RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Previous Studies………6

2.2 Direct Speech………...………...8

2.2.1 Tenses……….………12

2.2.2 Punctuation………..………...14

2.2.3 Rules in Quoting Direct Speech………...…..16

2.3 Indirect Speech………...………20

2.3.1 The Changes of Sentence Structure………....21

2.3.3 The Changes of Personal Pronouns………25

2.3.4 The Changes of Adverbs……….27

2.4 Error Analysis……….29

2.4.1 The Difference of Error and Mistake………..29

2.4.2 Error and Error Analysis……….30

CHAPTER III METHOD OF RESEARCH 3.1 Research Design………..36

3.2 Population and Sample...………36

3.3 Analysis Instruments...………. ...37

3.4 Data Collection………...………37

3.5 Data Analysis………..………...38

CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS 4.1 Description of Data………...40

4.2 Data Analysis………...…………...41

4.2.1 Describing the Errors………..41

4.2.2 Types of Errors………...…...42

4.2.3 The Dominant Types of Errors………...48

4.2.4 The Dominant Causes of Errors………...49

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 5.1 Conclusions……..………..50

REFERENCES………..51 APPENDICES

ABSTRAK

Skripsi berjudul “An Error Analysis in Using Direct and Indirect Speech Made by Twelfth Yea r Students of Hospita lity Accomoda tion Progra m, SMK Ra ksa na 2 Medan” merupakan suatu analisis tentang jenis-jenis kesalahan dan penyebab-penyebab kesalahan yang ditemukan dalam penggunaan kalimat langsung dan kalimat tidak langsung oleh siswa kelas duabelas jurusan akomodasi perhotelan di SMK Raksana 2 Medan. Landasan teori-teori yang dipakai adalah teori Jack Richard (1974) yang menjelaskan tentang jenis-jenis kesalahan (kinds of error) dan teori Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (1973) yang menjelaskan tentang penyebab-penyebab terjadinya kesalahan (causes of error). Penelitian ini menggunakan metode kuantitatif. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengukur tingkat kemampuan para siswa/i kelas duabelas jurusan akomodasi perhotelan dalam menggunakan kalimat langsung dan kalimat tidak langsung. Adapun objek penelitian dari skripsi ini adalah diambil dari pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang telah dijawab oleh para siswa. Hasil penemuan dari analisis jenis kesalahan ini menyatakan bahwa terdapat 12.15% omission, 10.24 % addition, 73.16% misinformation, dan 3.99% misordering. Analisis tentang penyebab kesalahan meyatakan bahwa terdapat 8.68% overgeneralization, 14.23% ignorance of rule restriction, 12.15% incomplete of rule restriction, dan 64.93% false concept hypothesis. Berdasarkan data diatas dapat disimpulkan bahwa misinformation (73.16%) sebagai jenis kesalahan dominan dan false concept hypothesis (64.93%) sebagai penyebab kesalahan dominan.

ABSTRACT

This thesis entitled “An Error Analysis in Using Direct and Indirect Speech Made by Twelfth Yea r Students of Hospita lity Accomoda tion Progra m, SMK Ra ksa na 2 Medan” is an analysis about the kinds of error and causes of error which found in the using of direct and direct speech made by the twelfth year students of hospitality accommodation program in SMK Raksana 2 Medan. It used the Jack Richard (1974) theory which explained about kinds of error and Dulay, Burt, and Krashen’s (1973) theory which explained about causes of error. This research used qualitative method. Aim of this study is to measure the ability of the twelfth year students of hospitality accommodation program in using direct and indirect speech. The object of the study in the discussion of this thesis is taken from the questions which are given to the students. The findings of kinds of error there were 12.15% omission, 10.24 % addition, 73.16% misinformation, and 3.99% misordering. The causes of error shown 8.68% overgeneralization, 14.23% ignorance of rule restriction, 12.15% incomplete of rule restriction, and 64.93% false concept hypothesis. Based on the data above, the writer concluded that the dominant kinds of error was misinformation (73.16%) and the dominant causes of error was false concept hypothesis (64.93%).

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

1.1Background of the Study

Grammar of a language is very important when we want to master a language. In linguistics, grammar is the set of structural rules governing the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural language. There are so many scopes in grammar. Some of them are direct and indirect speech which concern to the way to communicate to the others.

Direct speech is a communication activity when people (first person) share their feelings or messages to the others (second person) directly. In direct speech the original words of person are narrated (no change is made) and are enclosed in quotation mark. There are 2 parts in building a direct speech, they are reporting clause and reported clause. Reporting clause is the initial of a sentence in direct speech. Whereas reported clause is the part of direct speech which marked with quotation mark (“) and ended by quotation mark (”).

In writing direct speech, there are so many rules that we have to obey such as quotation marks, commas, periods, punctuations, and the used of capital words. It is so crucial to follow the rules because in direct speech we have to write the speaker’s exact words.

The easiest way to find the using of direct speech is in conversation because we use it daily in our lives. We use in sharing and talking to our families or even our societies. Someone speaks directly to a person uses direct speech and you talk to your friend use direct speech. So the used of the direct speech is so close to our lives consciously or not.

Indirect speech is a communication activity when the speaker (second person) tries to share the ideas from the first person to the others (third person) without omitting the message. Indirect speech is also called reported speech or indirect discourse. Grammatically, indirect speech used of certain syntactic structure such as content clause and infinitive phrase.

In indirect speech some changes are made. For example, person is changed because of the change of the speaker or the listener. In addition, in some languages such as English, there is a change of tenses which called the sequence of tenses. In some languages such as Latin, there is a change of mood. Latin switches from indicative to the infinitive (statement) or the subjunctive (question). In indirect speech the statement of the person is not enclosed in quotation marks, the word “that” may be used before the statement to show that it is indirect speech. Indirect speech is also called reported speech because reported speech refers to the second part of indirect speech in which something has been told by a person.

The researcher felt so interesting to choose this theme and so curious to the ability of the students. There are so many reasons why the researcher choose direct and indirect speech as the title. The main reason is the students have learned about direct and indirect speech and the researcher felt so interesting to measure the ability of the students in this matter. The researcher feels curious about this phenomenon and tries to find the causes of this matter.

Direct and indirect speech is one of the topics which can be found in the vocational high school students’ English book. It means that it is needed for the vocational high school students. The students are expected to know and understand this topic which finally can be used in their lives.

Mastering language is so important for us but sometimes we will find some errors or mistakes when we analyze it. It usually happens especially when we use the second language. It occurs because the structure, grammar, and syntax of our first and second language are rather different.

Error analysis is an activity to identify, classify, and interpret or describe the errors made by someone in speaking or in writing and it is carried out to obtain information on common difficulties faced by someone in speaking or in writing English sentences.

Another thing, which should noticed is the procedure of error analysis. The twelfth year students of hospitality accommodation program in SMK Raksana 2 Medan are second language learners, because they study English based on our Government curriculum no. 412. As the second language learners, they will also make errors in using the language in written and/or spoken.

Researcher has considered that the object of this research is errors made by twelfth year students of hospitality accommodation in SMK Raksana 2 Medan in using Direct and Indirect Speech. Since the purpose of this research is to study errors and to know what generally causing the students make errors.

Based on the explanation above, I am interested in doing research entitled “An Error Analysis in Using Direct and Indirect Speech Made by Twelfth Year Students of Hospitality Accommodation Program, SMK Raksana 2 Medan”.

1.2Problem of the Study

Based on the reason above, there are some questions to be answered, such as:

1. What types of errors do the twelfth year students of hospitality accommodation in SMK Raksana 2 Medan make in using direct and indirect speech?

2. What is the dominant type of error in using direct and indirect speech made by twelfth year students of hospitality accommodation in SMK Raksana 2 Medan? 3. What causes of errors do the twelfth year students of hospitality accommodation

in SMK Raksana 2 Medan make in using direct and indirect speech?

4. What is the dominant cause of error in using direct and indirect speech made by twelfth year students of hospitality accommodation in SMK Raksana 2 Medan?

1.3Objectives of the Study

In relation to the problem, the objectives of the analysis are:

1. To find out the types of errors which are made by twelfth year students of hospitality accommodation in SMK Raksana 2 Medan in using direct and indirect speech.

2. To find out the dominant type of error which is made by twelfth year students of hospitality accommodation in SMK Raksana 2 Medan in using direct and indirect speech.

3. To find out the causes of errors which are made by twelfth year students of hospitality accommodation in SMK Raksana 2 Medan in using direct and indirect speech.

4. To find out the dominant cause of error which is made by twelfth year students of hospitality accommodation in SMK Raksana 2 Medan in using direct and indirect speech.

1.4Scope of the Study

In research, it is important to limit the analysis on specific data that has been chosen. All tenses in English have direct and indirect own rules. In this thesis, I only

discuss direct and indirect speech that covers: simple present tense, present continuous tense, simple past tense, and present perfect tense. I chose the above tenses for students in grade twelfth because those are the basic tenses and they have known about the tenses especially using direct and indirect speech in these tenses well.

1.5Significance of the Study

Theoretical purpose of the study is to contribute to teaching skills and development of teachers’ qualities. While practical purpose is after a systematic analysis, the teacher can determine the level of every learner and the knowledge that is still to be taught. In other words, it tells the teacher how far towards the goal the learner has progressed and what remains for him/her to learn. It also can be a feedback for the teacher reflecting how effective he/she is in their teaching style and what changes he/she has to make to reach higher performance from his/her students.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1Previous Studies

Error analysis has been analyzed in some previous theses which help the writer in completing the thesis. Some of the previous studies are:

– Batubara (2010) in her thesis entitled An Error Analysis of Auxiliary Verbs Made by the 2006/2007 Ninth Gra de Students of Ma dra sa h Tsa na wiya h Al-Ulum Meda n. Finds the most error made by students is the using of do (36.26%), the using of be (32.90%), and an error in using have (30.84%).

– Napitupulu (2010) in her thesis entitled An Error of Using Adverbs by the Eleventh Yea r Students of SMA Negeri 7 Meda n. Based on her research, there are some errors which made by students omission (21.12%), misinformation (25.35%), misordering (23.94%), and overgeneralization (29.57%).

– Pujiasi (2010) in her thesis entitled The Errors of Unity and Coherence in Writing English Pa ra graph Ma de by The Sixth Semester Students of D -3 English Study Progra m of USU: A Ca se Study. From the analysis, the errors are appeared especially in using the unity elements. There are 24.03% (37 errors) and 75.97% (117 errors).

– Achirani (2011) in her thesis entitled An Error Analysis of Using Present Tense Ma de by Students of Second Yea r Junior High School of Ma drasa h Tsanawiya h Al-Wa shliya h 16 Perba ungan. Finds the most error made by students is present perfect continuous (93.27%), simple present (75.74%), Present Perfect (69.28%), and present continuous (61.71%).

– Rukiah (2011) in her thesis entitled An Error Analysis in Using Passive Voice Ma de by Eleventh Yea r Students of MAN 1 Pa ya bungan. Her Findings are she counts the percentage of correct and incorrect answers of passive voice by students of 32 questions. Finds the most error made by students in simple future tense (27.75%), simple past tense (26.59%), and the last is simple present tense (20.23%).

– Djayanti (2012) in her thesis entitled An Error Analysis of the Use of Simple Sentence Ma de by the Ninth Gra de Students of SMP Negeri 2 Pa ncur Ba tu. Finds the most error made by students is formation errors, involves: preposition, conjunction, noun, adverb, adjective, gerund, modals, be, article, pronoun, and determiner (48.52%), arranging errors, involves: misordering of verb phrase and misordering of noun phrase (19.95%), deduction errors, involves: -ing, article, verb, preposition, reflexive pronoun, pronoun, determiner, 3rd person singular verb, possessive maker, and be (25.15%), adding errors, involves: deter miner, plural maker (s/es), -ing, modal, be, possessive maker, verb, preposition, pronoun, adjective, article, noun, and 3rd person singular verb maker (11.39%). The conclusion is the ability in using simple sentences of students in SMP negeri 2 Pancur Batu especially class IX-1 is not good.

– Sembiring (2012) in her thesis entitled An Error Analysis of Using Pat Tenses in Na rra tive Text Ma de by the Twelve Gra ders of SMA Negeri 1 Ta njung Mora wa . The finding of analysis shows that the total of students’ correct answers in the test are 807 numbers or 68.97% and incorrect are 363 numbers or 31.03%. There are 4 types of errors that for omission are 97 or 26.72%. So, the dominant type of error is misinformation. And there are 4 causes of errors that for over-generalization there were 12 or 3.31% for ignore of rule restriction there were

137 or 37.74% for incomplete application of rules there were 93 or 25.62% and for cause of error false concepts hypothesized there were 121 or 33.33%. So, the dominant causes of errors were ignorance of rule restriction.

– Wahyuni (2014) in her thesis entitled Teaching Wr iting Design Based on the Students’ Difficulties in Writing Narrative Texts. Concludes that from 35 second grade students of Junior High School, there were 9 students didn’t face difficulty in writing narrative text and 26 students faced difficulties as below:

a ) In using past tense occurred 152 cases or 80.85% from all cases. b) In using conjunction occurred 26 cases or 13.83% from all cases. c) In using adjective occurred 10 cases or 5.32% from all cases.

– Ubol (1981) in his paper entitled An Error Analysis of English Compositions by Tha i Students. He found that there are 3 kinds of errors which are made by the Thai students. They were: grammatical or structural errors (694 occurrences or 34.73 %), lexical errors (710 occurrences or 35.53%), and error of style (594 occurrences or 29.73%). So, the dominant kinds of errors is lexical errors (710 occurrences or 35.53%).

2.2Direct Speech

Direct speech is usually used in a written text or conversation among the communicants. Chalker and Weiner (1988:188) state that direct speech is the reporting of speech by repeating the actual words used, without making any grammatical changes. Parrot (2004:217) states that direct speech conveys exactly what someone has said often to dramatize, to create a sense of immediacy, and because the precise words used were in some way important (for example funny or strange).

Furthermore Parrot (2004:413) states that direct speech generally has indicated by enclosing it in either single or double inverted commas (quotations marks) ‘…’ or “…”. If this direct speech is enclosed in double inverted commas (quotation marks), then we use single inverted commas to enclose any further direct speech that is embedded in this.

For example:

“What do you mean, ‘Mary’s had enough’?” or vice versa.

Basically, Direct Speech consists of 2 main parts, they are Reporting Clause and Reported Clause.

A. Reporting Clause

Reporting Clause is an utterance (such as: “she said”, “he shouted” or “Andi asks”) that identifies the speaker (and sometimes the tone) of a reported clause in either direct or indirect speech. It is also known as the initial sentence in direct speech. It consists of 2 main parts, they are subject and reporting verbs.

a. Subject

Dykes (2007:92) states subject is that which is under our attention, i.e. the person or thing that we are talking about. Every sentence has to has a subject in it. It is impossible when there is no subject in a sentence. It can be human, animal or thing which control a sentence. It occurs in the common sentences but not in direct speech. Direct speech is just using human/s as a subject because only human can speak and writing. The subjects are personal pronouns such as I, You, We, They, He, and She. We can also write human’s names which indicate the subject itself such as John, William, Anne, etc.

b. Reporting Verbs

Reporting verbs is the verbs which report the speaker speech. Reporting verb is used both in direct and indirect speech. The most common reporting verbs are ‘tell’ and ‘say’ but there are so many verbs which have the same function, that is as reporting verbs.

Admit Insist Inform Threaten Advice Mention Notify Beg Agree Suggest Persuade Convince Announce Promise Reassure Encourage Claim Warn Remind Forbid Complain Propose Demand Instruct Declare Assure Offer Invite Explain Refuse Order Command

There is a pattern to make a reporting clause. Pattern:

For examples: William says,…. Anne complains,…. “…” They Suggest. B. Reported Clause

Reported clause is a bound clause that reports what someone has said or thought, bound to main clause that contains a verb of saying and thinking. Reported clause is known as the speaker’s speech. It is the main idea of a direct speech. We have to consider so many aspects when we talk about it. It can be formed as statement, question, command or the mixture of them.

a. Statement

Statement is used to inform an information to the others. There is no meaning from a speaker or writer to their listener or reader about their statement. It is just to inform without any purpose which bond the reader or listener. It usually ended with a period.

Statement: Roger fell into the river.

Reported clause formed statement: …, “Roger fell into the river.” b. Question

This kind of sentence is used to ask something from the speaker to the listener. The speaker needs the response of the listener to answer what the speaker’s wants. Question mark is used in this sentence.

Question: Do you have some money?

Reported clause formed question: …, “Do you have some money?” c. Command/Request

Command/Request is used to order/request someone to do something. There is something that a speaker wants to order to his listener. Command mark is used in this sentence type.

Command: Shut the door! Don’t be lazy

Reported clause formed command: …, “Shut the door!” …, “Don’t be lazy!” d. Mixing Sentence

Thomson and Martinet (1986) in Zebua (2009) state direct speech may consist of statement + question, question + command, command + statement, or all three together. We can mix kinds of sentence in one sentence.

Examples:

– “I can’t drive. Do you?” she asked. (Statement + Question)

– “Mother is coming. Get hiding behind the chair!” He commanded. (Statement + Command)

– She said, “Can you get out from my house? I am bored on you.” (Question + Statement)

– “Do you have any money? Give it to me!” the thief said. (Question + Command)

– “Please, don’t drink too much! Remember that you will have to drive home,” she said. (Command + Statement)

– “Please, don’t make any noise! Do you want a bad grade?” (Command + Question)

2.2.1Tenses

We can’t deny that tenses are very important in writing especially for direct speech. English has its own tenses which make it unique. The tenses are used to build a sentence in a language which considers so many aspects for example, the suitable subject, the verbs and the changes, and also the time of the sentence. Greenbaum and Nelson (2002:55) state tense is a grammatical category referring to the time of the situation; the tense is indicated by the form of the verb. Dykes (2007:44) states tense is indicated whenever we use a finite verb.

In writing direct speech, we have to concern to tenses because we can’t write the right direct speech without the right tenses.

– Simple Present Tense

b. We say, “He doesn’t invite our friends to the celebration.” c. They ask him, “Do we get the present now?”

– Present Continuous Tense

a. Clare says, “I am meeting the little girls today.”

b. We say, “He is not inviting our friends to the celebration.” c. They ask him, “Are we getting the presents now?”

– Present Perfect Tense

a. Clare says, “I have met the little girls today.”

b. We say, “He has not invited our friends to the celebration.” c. They ask him, “Have we got the present?”

– Present Perfect Continuous Tense

a. Clare says, “I have been meeting the little girls.”

b. We say, “He has not been inviting our friends to the celebration.” c. They ask him, “Have we been getting the presents?”

– Simple Past Tense

a. Clare said, “I wanted to meet the little girls yesterday.” b. We said, “He did not invite our friends to the celebration.” c. They asked him, “Did we get the presents?”

– Past Continuous Tense

a. Clare said, “I was meeting the little girls yesterday.”

b. We said, “He was not inviting our friends to the celebration.” c. They asked him, “Were we getting the presents?”

– Simple Future Tense

a. Clare said, “I will meet the little girls tomorrow.”

c. They asked him, “Will we get the presents?” – Future Continuous Tense

a. Clare said, “I will be meeting the little girls tomorrow.”

b. We said, “He will not be inviting our friends to the celebration.” c. They asked him, “Will we be getting the presents?

– Future Perfect Tense

a. Clare said, “I will have met the little girls.”

b. We said, “He will not have invited our friends to the celebration.” c. They asked him, “Will we have got the presents?”

– Future Perfect Continuous Tense

a. Clare said, “I will have been meeting the little girls.”

b. We said, “He will not have been inviting our friends to the celebration.” c. They asked him, “Will we have been getting the presents?

– Simple Past Future Tense

a. Clare said, “I would meet the little girls.”

b. We said, “He would not invite our friends to the celebration.” c. They asked him, “Would we get the presents?”

– Past Future Continuous Tense

a. Clare said, “I would be meeting the little girls.”

b. We said, “He would not be inviting our friends to the celebration.” c. They asked him, “Would we be getting the presents?

2.2.2Punctuation

Punctuation has a power in building a sentence in a language. It helps the reader to understand the writer’s aim. Greenbaum and Nelson (2002:187) state punctuation

helps the reader to understand the written communication by breaking it down into smaller components.

In writing direct speech, we will find so many punctuations on it such as, commas, quotation marks, ellipses, dash, tags, and period. We cannot deny that punctuation is so important to make the reader or listener know the ideas which a writer or speaker wants to share.

a. Commas

Dykes (2007) states the comma separates direct speech from narrative. Comma is used to separate the sentences in direct speech (reporting clause and reported clause). For examples:

John said, “I will come to your house.”

“We have to make the best decoration for this party,” they said.

There is no difference in using comma even there is a difference positions in writing the reporting and reported clause above.

b. Quotation Marks

Quotation marks or inverted commas are also known informally as quotes or speech marks. It placed either side of a word or phrase in order to identify it is a quotation, direct speech or a literal title or name.

Quotation marks are needed in writing direct speech. It can be an indicator that the sentence is direct speech which is so different with the indirect speech.

For examples:

He said, “I will type a proposal.”

c. Dash

Dash is used to indicate the unfinished remark. When it has done to indicate the unfinished remark, it should be followed by quotation marks without any comma or period.

For examples:

He says, “Steven, we “

She answered, “Yes… but I don’t see what ” d. Period

Period is used to indicate the ending of a statement. When we have put the period on a direct speech sentence, it should be ended with quotation mark. It can’t be allowed when we put a period outside the quotation marks.

For examples:

He said, “I will type a proposal.”

She said, “They can do it better than me.”

2.2.3Rules in Quoting Direct Speech

Greenbaum and Nelson (2002:189-192) state that there are some rules when we punctuate in direct speech. It will explain below:

– Initial Reporting Clause

A. It is usual to put a comma after the reporting clause and before the initial quotation marks:

 She told them, ’We should not waste food when millions are starving.’

B. We may use a colon instead of a comma, particularly if the direct speech contains more than one sentence:

 He turned to me and said: ‘For the first time in my life I understood who I was and what I was doing and why I was doing it.’

C. If the quotation is indented, it is not necessary to use quotation marks since the layout is a sufficient indication of direct speech.

D. If the quotation ends the sentence, we put a full stop, a question mark, an exclamation mark, or a dash before the final quotation marks.

 The reporter asked, ‘Has the general arrived?’  The crowd cried, ‘Long live the President!’

E. The dash in indicates that the speaker has stopped in mid-sentence.  She said, ‘I have done my share, but you –’

F. If the question mark or exclamation mark belongs to the sentence as a whole (not to the direct speech), it goes after the closing quotation marks:

 Did she say, ‘It is against my religious principles’?  He actually said, ‘I am too busy to see you’!

G. In the rare situation when the question mark or exclamation mark belongs both to the sentence and to the direct speech, use only one mark and put it before the quotation marks:

 Did she say, ‘Is it against your religious principles?’ – Final Reporting Clause

A. If the direct speech sentence would ordinarily end in a full stop, put a comma before the quotation marks:

 ‘I’m not yet ready,’ he replied.

Otherwise, use a question mark or exclamation mark as appropriate:  ‘Do you know the way?’ she asked.

B. The sentence may continue after the reporting clause:  ‘I’m not yet ready,’ he replied, and put down the telephone.  ‘I’m not yet ready,’ he replied; then he put down the telephone. – Medial Reporting Clause

A. The medial clause combines punctuation features associated with the initial and final reporting clause. The punctuation before the medial clause is the

same as for the final reporting clause:

 ‘I’m not yet ready,’ he replied. ‘You go ahead without me.’  ‘Do you know the way?’ she asked. ‘I’m lost.’

 ‘Lights!’ he screamed. ‘Give me lights!’

B. If the reporting clause interrupts a sentence, use a comma even if the sentence would ordinarily have no punctuation:

 ‘When you are ready,’ he said, ‘let me know.’ (cf. When you a re rea dy, let me know.)

 ‘I know,’ he said, ‘that they suspect me.’ (cf. I know tha t they suspect me.)

C. The punctuation after the medial reporting clause depends on whether the first part is an independent sentence. If it is, a full stop follows the reporting clause. If the reporting clause interrupts the sentence where the sentence would ordinarily have a comma or no punctuation, then a comma follows the clause. If the reporting clause is placed where the sentence would ordinarily have a semicolon, the semicolon follows the reporting clause:

 ‘The first two attempts to amend the constitution by convention succeeded,’ the senator said; ‘the next two attempts failed.’

D. The punctuation at the end of the sentence is the same as for the initial reporting clause. We therefore have a full stop before the closing quotation marks and an exclamation mark in. Here are two further examples:

 ‘Did you say,’ she asked, ‘that she would see me now?’  ‘I have done my share,’ she said, ‘but you –’

– In General

A. It is normal to start a new paragraph when there is a change of speaker, whether or not the direct speech is accompanied by a reporting clause:

 ‘What was in the letter?’ she asked. ‘I can’t tell you. I couldn’t read it.’ ‘Why not?’

‘It was in Spanish.’

B. Use double quotation marks for a quotation within a quotation if you have used single quotation marks for the main quotation:

 ‘I said I’d take the job. Then I went to bed and thought, “What am I doing?” I don’t want my children to say “He was a good football coach”. I want them to think that I tried to do more than that.’

C. If the quotation is not in full, the punctuation mark that follows it comes after the quotation marks:

 The Colonel says he regards ‘the past 20 years just as an introduction’. He described the pleasure of seeing how deserts had become ‘not the Garden of Eden exactly, but a bit greener’, though he made it clear that self - fullfillment was not his aim.

D. Partial quotations draw attention to a significant part of what was said, and they may therefore be very brief:

 The newspapers carried reports of a famine of ‘biblical proportions’ in Ethiopia. Sometimes the party sounds a little too enthusiastic about enforcing majority ‘rights’.

E. In the last example the effect of inserting the quotation marks is to suggest that the writer does not accept responsibility for the appropriateness of the expression ‘rights’ in this context.

Whereas Azar (1993:364) in Zebua (2009) states that there are some rules in quoting direct speech. It will explain below:

– Put a comma after reporting clause: Lampard says, – Put quotation mark: Lampard says, “

– Capitalize the first letter of the quotation: Lampard says, “I – Write the quotation: Lampard says, “I will be a champion

– Put a final period and put quotation mark after it: Lampard says, “I will be a champion.”

– When there are two (or more) sentences in a quotation, put the quotation marks at the beginning and the end of whole quote.

For example:

“You come to my house. You take all my jewelry. You shot my servants down,” William said angrily.

– As with the period, put the quotation mark at the end of the quote.

2.3Indirect Speech

Indirect speech is a means the content of statements, questions or other utterances, without quoting them explicitly as is done in direct speech. Indirect speech also

known as reported speech or indirect discourse. It is absolutely the opposite of the direct speech.

Basically direct and indirect speech are almost the same, those are the speech which always be used in our lives. We can be used it when we want to retell someone’s speech to the other. It means that it is the past forms of direct speech. There are so many indicators to indicate the indirect speech or the special characteristics of indirect speech.

2.3.1The Change of Sentence Structure

The change of sentence structure means that the structure of one sentence to another is changed. We can see it directly and it is concrete. It connects to the use of punctuations. We can conclude that it is direct or indirect speech directly when we see the sentence itself. In direct speech we can see the used of comma after the reporting clause and the quotation marks (single or double quotation mark) in the reported clause but it doesn’t happen in indirect speech. Indirect speech never uses comma and quotation marks. So, it can be diversification between direct and indirect speech visually.

For examples:

She said, “My mother cooks well.” (Direct Speech) She said that her mother cooked well. (Indirect Speech)

From the sentences above, it is clear that there is a diversification between the sentences above. The comma above (direct speech) is replaced by word “that” and the quotation mark is missing without any replacement. Even the comma and quotation mark is missing in indirect speech but there is no changes with the other

marks (period). It is not only occurred in statement sentence, it also happens in command and question sentence.

1. Command/Request Sentence

The command/request sentence is used to order/request someone to do something. The typical of this sentence is the use of command mark (!) which makes it different from the other sentences. Command mark is used in this sentence which can be found in direct speech. When the direct speech is changing to the indirect speech, the comma and quotation mark are missed like the usual.

There are 2 kinds of command/request sentence which have different changes in indirect speech. They are:

a. Positive Command/Request Sentence

The basic feature that we can find in this kind of command/request sentence is the used of infinitive (V1). For this kind, we have to use “to” as conjunctive before the verb.

For example:

Steven asked, “Close the window!” Steven asked me to close the window. b. Negative Command/Request Sentence

The typical of this sentence is the used of word “Don’t” and we have to use “not to” to replace the word “Don’t” before.

For example:

She said, “Don’ttouch me!” She said me not to touch her.

2. Question Sentence

Question sentence is used to ask someone to do something. The typical of this sentence is the use of question mark (?). We have to be careful to change the sentence into indirect speech because there are 2 kinds of question sentence which have different method to change it to be the indirect speech. They are yes/no question and W/H question.

a. Yes/no Question

Yes/no question is the question which needs a short answer. The answer is just yes or no. The typical of this type of question is the using of auxiliary verb in starting the sentence.

When we find this kind of sentence in direct speech, we have to change the auxiliary verb to if/whether. There is no difference in using these words. It is based on the writer. In indirect speech it will be changed into affirmative sentence.

For example:

They asked me, “Do you want to join us to play football?” They asked me if/whether I want to join them to play football. b. W/H Questions

W/H Question is the question which uses word questions. The word questions are what, who, where, why, when, and how. The kind of the question needs long detail answer, sometimes it needs an explanation to answer these questions. The sentence in direct speech and indirect speech will be different. It will change into affirmative. For example:

Andy asked Ted, “Where do you live?” Andy asked Ted where he lived.

2.3.2The Changes of Tenses

As we talk before that indirect speech is the past form of direct speech, so we can conclude that the changes of tenses can be occurred.

Whenever we write it, we have to consider the tenses because it can make a big error when we are not thinking about the tenses.

It will be explained below:

1. Simple Present Tense Simple Past Tense For example:

She said, “My mother cooks well.” (Direct Speech) She said that her mother cooked well. (Indirect Speech)

There is an exception in changing direct speech into indirect speech in simple present tense. When in direct speech we find the general truths or habitual actions, the tense is not changed.

For example:

She says, “The sun rises in east.” (Direct Speech) She said the sun rises in east. (Indirect Speech) 2. Simple Past Tense Past Perfect Tense For example:

They said, “We played a terrific game.” (Direct Speech) They said that they had played a terrific game. (Direct Speech) 3. Present Perfect Tense Past Perfect Tense

For example:

Clare says, “I have met the little girls today.” (Direct Speech) Clare says that she had met the little girl then. (Indirect Speech)

4. Present Continuous Tense Past Continuous Tense For example:

William says, “He is not inviting our friends to the celebration.” (Direct Speech) William says that he was not inviting our friends to the celebration. (Indirect Speech) 5. Present Perfect Continuous Tense Past Perfect Continuous Tense For example:

He said, “I have been painting the wall.” (Direct Speech) He said that he had been painting the wall. (Indirect Speech) 6. Simple Future Tense Past Future Tense

For example:

They say, “We will meet after the class.” (Direct Speech) They say that we would meet after the class. (Indirect Speech) 7. Past Continuous Tense Past Perfect Continuous For Example:

He said, “I was not a smart boy.” (Direct Speech)

He said that he had not been being a smart boy. (Indirect Speech)

2.3.3 The Changes of Personal Pronouns

Pronoun is a word that substitutes for noun or noun phrase. It is particular case of a pro-form (www.wikipedia.com). There are so many kinds of pronouns, such as personal pronouns, relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, possessive pronouns, and indefinite pronouns.

In the speech we will always see the use of pronouns. The kind of pronouns which is most used is personal pronouns. Originally, there are 3 kinds of personal pronouns, they are: first person (I and we), second person (you), and third person (he,

she, it, and they). Not only as a subject (subject pronouns), the personal pronouns can also uses as object (object pronouns). Subject pronoun is when a person or thing uses as a subject in a sentence or clause and object pronoun is when the person or thing uses as an object in a sentence or clause.

When we talk about indirect speech, we can’t deny the pronouns. The pronouns do not only use in indirect speech but also in direct speech. We can see the used in reporting clause and reported clause in indirect speech. The changes of personal pronouns depend on the use of the pronouns as a subject or object in direct speech which will influence the changes of personal pronouns in indirect speech.

There are some rules in changing the pronouns in indirect speech which will be explained below:

a) The changes of first person (I and We) in reporting clause will be changed appropriate to subject in reported clause.

For examples:

– He said, “I will have a meeting.” (Direct Speech) He said that he would have a meeting. (Indirect Speech) – They said, “We got a prize.” (Direct Speech)

They said that they had gotten a prize. (Indirect Speech)

b) The second personal pronouns (You) will be changed appropriate to the object in reported speech.

For examples:

– He said to me, “You have to come with me” (Direct Speech) He said to me that I had to come with him. (Indirect Speech) – She said to me, “You can go now.” (Direct Speech)

c) There is no change of third personal pronouns (He, She, It, and They) in indirect speech.

For examples:

– He said, “She is a good lecturer.” (Direct Speech) He said that she was a good lecturer. (Indirect Speech) – They said, “It has 3 tails.” (Direct Speech)

They said that it had 3 tails. (Indirect Speech) – She said, “They have invited us.” (Direct Speech)

She said that they had invited them. (Indirect Speech)

2.3.4The Changes of Adverb (Adverb of Time and Place)

Adverb is used to explain a sentence and make a sentence clearer. There are 4 kinds of adverbs, they are: adverb of time, adverb of place, adverb of frequency, and adverb of manner. We usually see the adverb in a communication.

There are 4 kinds of adverb but only 2 adverbs which have a change in indirect speech. The adverbs are adverb of time and adverb of place. These adverbs in direct speech will be changed in indirect speech.

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

Now Then

Today That day, The next day, The day after

Tomorrow The following day, The day later Next … The … after, The following …

Last … The … before, The previous … … ago … before, … earlier

Yesterday The day before, The previous day

The day before yesterday Two day before

Here There

This That

These Those

The using in the sentences:

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

She says, “I am writing now.” She said that she was writing then.

He says, “She has a class today.” He says that she had a class that day/the next day/the day after.

They say, “We will come to your house tomorrow.”

They say that they would come to my house the following day/the day later.

He says, “I will hike the mountain next week.”

He says that he would hike the mountain the week after/the following week.

month.” month before/the previous month.

She said, “He came to your house 2 days ago.”

She said that he had come to my house 2 days before/2 days earlier. She said, “I helped my mother

yesterday.”

She said that he had helped her mother the day before/the previous day.

They said, “It ripped the day before yesterday.”

They said that it had ripped two days before.

He said, “I have a present for you in my bag here.”

He said that he had a present for me in his bag there.

My mother said, “This is a good day.”

My mother said that that was a good day.

My father said, “These are lovely kittens.”

My father said that those were lovely kittens.

2.4Error Analysis

2.4.1The Difference of Error and Mistake

In learning language especially second language, we will find a problem which also known as error and mistake. Brown (2000) states that in the process of learning especially English, there are 2 terms for distinguishing mistake which is made by student, they are ‘mistake’ and ‘error’. Generally, people think that error and mistake is same, but in fact, they are so different.

Ellis (1985:9) states that errors are an important source of information about SLA, because they demonstrate conclusively that learners do not simply memorize target language rules and then reproduce them in their own utterance. They indicate that learners construct their own rules on the basis of input data, and that in some instances at least these rules differ from those of target language

Error is the fault which is happens in the process of understanding. So, the fault which occurs here is not the technically problem like ‘slip of tongue’ but the fault which describes that a student is not knowing and understanding the patterns in the language yet.

Furthermore, mistake is the fault which makes by student because of the fault hypothesis and the fault in using the knowing systems. It means that the student has known the language well but there is “slip in tongue” factor, random grammar, mistakes in remembering, or physically factors such as: fatigue and uncontrollable emotion.

It is important to know the differences between error and mistake because they have different factors which cause it. Mistake happens because of “error in performance” and error happens because of “error in competence”. So, to prove if a student makes a mistake or an error that is to recheck the mistake with the student which made it. If he can re-correct the found mistake, it means that he made a mistake or “error in performance” but if he cannot find and re-correct the mistake, it means that he made an error or “error in competence”.

2.4.2 Error and Error Analysis

Ellis (1985:9) states that errors are an important source of information about SLA, because they demonstrate conclusively that learners do not simply memorize

target language rules and then reproduce them in their utterances. They indicated that learners construct their own rules in the basis of input data, and that in some instances at least these rules differ from those of the target language. Error and error analysis can’t be separated because there is no error analysis without the error itself. Error analysis exists because of the error itself, it is the object which will be analyzed.

The procedure for error analysis is spelled out in Corder (1979). It is as follows: A. A corpus of language is selected

This involves deciding on the size of the sample, the medium to the sampled, and the homogeneity of the sample (with regard to the learner’s ages, L1 background, stage of development, etc)

B. The errors in the corpus are identified

Corder (1971) points out the need to distinguish ‘lapses’ (i.e. deviant sentences that are the result of processing limitations rather than lack of competence) from ‘errors’ (i.e. deviant sentences that are the result of lack of competence). He also points out that sentences can be ‘overtly idiosyncratic’ (i.e. they are ill formed in terms of target language rules) and ‘convertly idiosyncratic’ (i.e. sentences that are superficially well formed but when their context of use is examined are clearly ungrammatical)

C. The errors are classified

This involves assigning a grammatical description to each error. D. The errors are explained

In this stage of procedure an attempt is made to identify the psycholinguistic cause of the errors. For examples, an attempt could be made to establish which of the five processes described by Selinker (1972) is responsible for each error.

E. The errors are evaluated

This stage involves assessing the seriousness of each error in order to take principled teaching decisions. Error evaluation is necessary only if the purpose of the error analysis is pedagogic. It is redundant if the error analysis is carried out in order to research SLA.

There are some classifications of error. This classify can explain us about the kinds of error and how to analysis each errors which we will find in the using of a language. Some experts have their own classification which will be explained below: 1. Jack Richards (1974:173)

Jack Richards classifies error into two kinds, they are: A. Interlanguage Errors

The term interlanguage was first used by Selinker (1972). Various alternative terms have been used by different researchers to refer to the same phenomenon; Nemser (1971) refers to approximative systems, and Coder (1971) to idiosyncratic dia lects and transitional competence.

These terms reflect two related but different concepts. First, interlanguage refers to the structured system which the learner constructs at any given stage in his development (i.e. an interlanguage). Second, the term refers to the series of interlocking systems which form what Corder (1967) called the learner’s ‘built -in-syllabus’ (i.e. interla ngua ge continuum)

Richard (1974:173) says that interlanguage errors are errors caused by the interference of the learner’s mother tongue. The interference means the interference of native language into the second language which means the learning process. The interlanguage errors can be occurred when someone wants to learn a language (second language) and he brings his native language to the language which he is

learning to. Error must be happened because language is not same. There are so many aspects which make a language different from another, one of them is culture. B. Intralingual Errors

Richard (1974:6) says that intralingual errors refers to item produced by the learner which reflect not the structure of the mother tongue, but generalizations based on partial exposure to the target language. Intralingual errors occur in the second language, it is the result of the understanding of the learner to the second language.

The error can be faced even in the simple rules such as the differences between the verb inflections in I count, she counts. The error looks simple but it is crucial for a good writing. Intralingual errors can be classified into some errors such as:

 Overgeneralization

Languages have their own rules which make them unique. One rule is used for the specific matter and it can’t be used to the other matters. The overgeneralization is a big mistake to a learner who is learning a language. Jacobvits (in Richards, 1974) defines overgeneralization is the use of previously available strategies in new situations. There are some mistakes which we can face in using a language such as the using of past form in English. Generally, English verb uses –ed to define that it is the past form but in fact, the –ed form is not occurred in some verbs. It may be inferred that the overgeneralization is not suggested.

 Ignorance of Rule Restriction

Overgeneralization and ignorance of rule restriction are similar because they disobey the basic rules in a language. No limitation is the main idea of this type.  Incomplete of Application Rules

These errors reflect the degree of rule acquisition and the ability correct utterance to be produced. The error concerns to the negative and interrogative sentence which centered to the using of auxiliary verbs or the inversion.

 False Concept Hypothesis

These errors are caused by the poor gradation of teaching such the mistakes resulted from a poor rule presentation. For getting a clear explanation we can see that in the using of word “yet”.

– He has arrived the house yet.

The using of “yet” above is false because the word “yet” is occurred in a negative sentence.

2. Dulay and Burt (1973, 1974a)

They identified 4 types of error according to their psycholinguistic origins: A. Interference-like Errors

Those errors that reflect native language structure and are not found in first language acquisition data.

B. First Language Developmental Errors

Those that do not reflect native language structure but are found in first language acquisition data.

C. Ambiguous Errors

Those that can not be categorized as either interference-like or developmental. D. Unique Errors

Those that do not reflect first language structure and also are not found in first language acquisition data.

Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (1982:138) state that errors are the flawed side of learner speech or writing. They described 4 descriptive taxonomies to analyzed errors. They are:

A. Linguistic Category Taxonomy

Linguistic category taxonomy classifies according to either or both the language component and the particular linguistic constituent the error effects. The language components are phonology, syntax and morphology, semantic and lexicon, and discourse whereas constituents include the elements that comprise each language component.

B. Surface Strategy Taxonomy

Surface strategy taxonomy is the highlights of the way surface structures which are altered. There are some kinds of errors in this kind:

 Omission Errors

Omission errors are characterized by the absence of an item that must appear in well-formed utterance.

 Addition Errors

Addition errors are characterized by the presence of an item which must not appear in a well-formed utterance. Three types of addition errors are:

– Double markings: dey didn’t ate the meals. – Regularization: goed for went.

– Simple additions: I doesn’t go to school.  Misinformation Errors

Misinformation errors are characterized with the used of the wrong forms of morphemes or structure. The types of this kind are:

– Archi-forms: I come to her house yesterday. – Alternating forms: I gone to her house yesterday.  Misordering Errors

Misordering errors are the incorrect placement of a morpheme or group of morphemes in an utterance.

C. Comparative Taxonomy

Classifying the errors based on comparison between the structure of language learners’ errors and the types of construction. The kinds of this taxonomy are: developmental errors, interlingual errors, ambiguous errors and unique errors.

D. Communicative Effect Taxonomy

Deals with the errors from the perspective of the listener or reader. The taxonomy can be classified into: global errors and local errors.

CHAPTER III

METHOD OF RESEARCH

3.1Research Design

Bungin (2005:40-41) states that there are 3 kinds of research based on the location of the research i.e. field research, library research, and laboratory research. Term “field research” is the collection of information outside of a laboratory, library, or workplace setting. (www.wikipedia.com). Participant observation, data collection, survey research are examples of field research which is contrast with the other research methods. The advantages of field research are the researchers can know the real conditions in the field and can design the best way to discover the particular information required.

Beside the field research, I also apply library research. Nawawi (1993:30) states that library research is done by collecting data from any kinds of literatures in library as well as other places. A library research will generally include primary sources and secondary sources.

The method of the study used is quantitative method. Arikunto (2002:12) says that quantitative research applies number from collecting the data, describing the data, until the result of the research. Quantitative research is the systematic empirical investigation of observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational better by applying table, graph, draft, picture, etc.

3.2Population and Sample

The population of this research is the 2014/2015 twelfth year students of hospitality accommodation program in SMK Raksana 2 Medan. There is one class which consists of 33 students.

Considering that the number of the students is small, so the researcher decided to take the population as the sample. As Arikunto (2006:413) says “If the population less than 100, it is better to take the population as the sample, if the population more than 100 the researcher has to take 10%-15% or 20%-25% or more for the sample.”

The population of the research is small. As considering that there is one class in hospitality accommodation. The researcher decided to take the population as the sample. The sample of the research is 33 students. It means the percentage of the sample is 100%.

3.3Analysis Instruments

The analysis instrument which used in this thesis is test. The researcher gives a test to the respondents to measure the ability of understanding direct and indirect speech. The test is consisting of 20 questions which concerns to the specific tenses, they are simple present tense, present continuous tense, simple past tense and present perfect tense.

3.4Data Collection

Data collection method is done by giving a test to 33 students of twelfth year students in SMK Raksana 2 Medan. The researcher gives a test for the respondents. The test is contained 20 questions. The researcher only gives 60 minutes for the respondents to answer the test. The data sources are students’ answers. Each correct

answer was scored 1 and wrong answer was scored 0 so, the highest score is 20. The aims of this test are to analyze the students’ errors and to measure the ability of the students in using direct and indirect speech.

3.5Data Analysis

The data were analyzed to identify the cause of the problems. In analyzing the students’ errors, the research used some procedures, they were:

1. Scoring the student’s answers

The researcher obtained the scoring by applying the following formula by Arikunto (2005:176)

S=R Where: S = Score

R = Right answer

2. Identifying the students’ errors 3. Classifying the errors

4. Finding of the causes of errors

To count the errors in percentage, the researcher is also uses the formula of (Bungin 2005:171-172). The formula is:

Notes:

n = stands for the percentage of errors

Fx = stands of the total frequency of the sub-categories errors n = Fx/N x 100%

N = stands for the total errors of all categories 100% = Constant numeral

Having counted the percentage of errors, the analyzing the errors was done based on the classification or types of each and was also based on the mixture of errors was made and by looking up the result of the analysis, draw some conclusions.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS

4.1Description of Data

After answering the test, I scored the test and tabulated it. The table below is shown the students’ score achievements in answering the test and then calculated to get the average of the scores.

Table 1 The Students’ Scores

No The Students’

Initial Name Correct Answer Incorrect Answer

1 AQDBS 2 18

2 AS 2 18

3 A 1 19

4 ASS 7 13

5 AJ 3 17

6 APD 4 16

7 DR 1 19

8 DA 4 16

9 EJ 9 11

10 EDS 0 20

11 HTS 2 18

12 JS 4 16

13 K 2 18

14 KS 3 17

15 MM 1 19

16 MRS 3 17

17 MAA 6 14

18 NL 1 19

19 NIS 2 18

20 RRDNC 2 18

21 RP 2 18

22 RAS 1 19

23 RJ 2 18

24 SSUBS 0 20

Based on the table above, the total score from the correct answer is 84 and the total score from the incorrect answer is 576. Then the average from the correct answer is 2.54 and the average from the incorrect answer is 17.45. From the average above it showed that 3 questions are answerable questions and 17 questions are unanswerable questions.

4.2Data Analysis

4.2.1Describing the Errors

The item analysis is needed in this case. In this analysis, the errors are based on the answer of the students. If the student could not answer the test or made the incorrect responds then it is called that he/she made errors.

The table below shows the table analysis of students’ responds. Table 2

The Item Analysis

ITEM NUMBER CORRECT PERCENTAGE INCORRECT PERCENTAGE

1 19 57.57 14 42.42

2 4 12.12 29 84.84

3 7 21.21 26 78.78

4 0 0 33 100

5 0 0 33 100

6 3 9.09 30 90.90

7 5 15.15 28 84.84

8 3 9.09 30 90.90

9 0 0 33 100

29 TSS 2 18

30 TAT 2 18

31 VWSP 3 17

32 WAS 4 16

33 W 1 19

Total Score 84 576

10 8 24.24 25 75.75

11 4 12.12 29 87.87

12 3 9.09 30 90.90

13 1 3.03 32 96.96

14 0 0 33 100

15 11 33.33 22 66.66

16 11 33.33 22 66.66

17 4 12.12 29 87.87

18 1 3.03 32 96.96

19 0 0 33 100

20 0 0 33 100

Total 84 12.72 576 87.27

Based on the table above, it shows that the total students’ correct answers is 84 or 12.72% and the total students’ incorrect answers is 576 or 87.27%.

4.2.2Types of Errors

To know the types of error which made by the students, we can see it from the table. Types of Errors

1. Anne says, “My mother cooks well today.”

The right answer: Anne said that her mother cooked well that day.

Based on the table, it has shown that the total students’ errors which occurred in the first question were 14 errors. The errors were divided in one type of errors, it is misinformation. It was found that misinformation were 14 occurrences.

2. She says, “The sun rises in east.”

The right answer: She said the sun rises in east.

Based on the table, it has shown that the total students’ errors which occurred in the second question were 29 errors. The errors were divided in 3 types of errors, they

were omission, addition, and misinformation. It was found that omission were 1 occurrence, addition were 24 occurrences, and misinformation were 4 occurrences.

3. He commands, “Don’t touch my book!”

The right answer: He commanded not to touch his book.

Based on the table, it has shown that the total students’ errors which occurred in the third question were 26 errors. The errors were divided in 3 types of errors, they were omission, addition, and misinformation. It was found that omission were 3 occurrences, addition were 2 occurrences, and misinformation were 21 occurrences.

4. John said, “They climbed the mountain yesterday.”

The right answer: John said that they had climbed the mountain the day before.

Based on the table, it has shown that the total students’ errors which occurred in the fourth question were 33 errors. The errors were divided in 2 types of errors, they were omission and misinformation. It was found that omission were 9 occurrences and misinformation were 24 occurrences.

5. Albert said, “I cut my hair last month.”

The right answer: Albert said that he had cut his hair the month before. Based on the table, it has shown that the total students’ errors which occurred in the fifth question were 33 errors. The errors were divided in 3 types of errors, they were omission, addition, and misinformation. It was found that omission were 2 occurrences, addition were 1 occurrence, and misinformation were 30 occurrences.

6. Atika asked me, “Did you finish your proposal?

The right answer: Atika asked me whether/if I had finished my proposal. Based on the table, it has shown that the total students’ errors which occurred in the sixth question were 30 errors. The errors were divided in 3 types of errors, they were omission, addition, and misinformation. It was found that omission were 10 occurrences, addition were 4 occurrences, and misinformation were 16 occurrences.

7. She said, “We are planning a farewell party for our guests.”

The right answer: She said that they were planning a farewell party for our guests.

Based on the table, it has shown that the total students’ errors which occurred in the seventh question were 28 errors. The errors were divided in 2 types of errors, they were omission and misinformation. It was found that omission was 1 occurrence and misinformation were 27 occurrences.

8. The mechanic informed, “Your car is repairing in the garage now.”

The right answer: The mechanic informed that my car was repairing in the garage then.

Based on the table, it has shown that the total students’ errors which occurred in the eighth question were 30 errors. The errors were divided in 1 type of errors, it was misinformation. It was found that misinformation were 30 occurrences.

9. He asked me, “Has anyone found the missing dog?”

The right answer: He asked me whether/if someone had found the missing dog.

Based on the table, it has shows that the total students’ errors which occurred in the ninth question were 33 errors. The errors were divided in 3 types of errors, they were omission, misinformation, and misordering. It was found that omission were 2 occurrences, misinformation were 30 occurrences, and misordering was 1 occurrence.

10.The technician said, “The laboratory has already sent in the report.”

The right answer: The technician said that the laboratory had already sent in the report.

Based on the table, it has shown that the total students’ errors which occurred in the tenth question were 25 errors. The errors were divided in 3 types of errors, they were omission, addition, and misinformation. It was found that omission was 1 occurrence, addition were 4 occurrences, and misinformation were 20 occurrences.

11.They asked me whether I wanted to join them to finish the duties.

The right answer: They ask me, “Do you want to join us to finish the duties?” Based on the table, it has shown that the total students’ errors which occurred in the eleventh question were 29 errors. The errors were divided in 2 types of errors, they were addition and misinformation. It was found that addition was 1 occurrence and misinformation were 28 occurrences.

12.Robert asked me where his bag was.

The right answer: Robert asks me, “Where is my bag?” “Where is my bag?” Robert asks.

Based on the table, it has shown that the total students’ errors which occurred in the twelfth question were 30 errors. The errors were divided in 3 types of errors, they were addition, misinformation, and misordering. It was found that addition was 1 occurrence, misinformation were 16 occurrences, and misordering were 13 occurrences.

13.Ayu said that she had been in Bogor a week ago.

The right answer: Ayu said, “I was in Bogor last week.”

Based on the table, it has shown that the total students’ errors which occurred in the thirteenth question were 32 errors. The errors were divided in 1 type of errors, it is misinformation. It was found that misinformation were 32 occurrences.

14.She informed that someone had stolen her wallet the day before.

The right answer: She informed, “Someone stole my wallet yesterday.”

Based on the table, it has shown that the total students’ errors which occurred in the fifteenth question were 33 errors. The errors were divided in 4 types of errors, they were omission, addition, misinformation, and misordering. It was found that omission were 3 occurrences, addition were 8 occurrences, misinformation were 21 occurrences, and misordering was 1 occurrence.

15.Gilbert said that he was not doing his homework.

The right answer: Gilbert says, “I am not doing my homework.”

Based on the table, it has shown that the total students’ errors which occurred in the fifteenth question were 22 errors. The errors were divided in 3 types of errors,

they were omission, addition, and misinformation. It was found that omission were 4 occurrences, addition were 3 occurrences, and misinformation were 15 occurrences.

16.Nadia said that her friends were doing their homework in the library.

The right answer: Nadia says, “My friends are doing their homework in the library.”

Based on the table, it has shown that the total students’ errors which occurred in the sixteenth question were 22 errors. The errors were divided in 2 types of errors, they were omission and misinformation. It was found that omission were 7 occurrences and misinformation were 15 occurrences.

17.She wondered who playing the piano was.

The right answer: She wonders, “Who is playing the piano?”

Based on the table, it has shown that the total students’ errors which occurred in the seventeenth question were 29 errors. The errors were divided in 3 types of errors, they were omission, misinformation, and misordering. It was found that omission were 6 occurrences, misinformation were 21 occurrences, and misordering were 2 occurrences.

18.He said that the package had arrived.

The right answer: He said, “The package has arrived.”

Based on the table, it has shown that the total students’ errors which occurred in the eighteenth question were 32 errors. The errors were divided in 4 types of errors, they were omission, addition, misinformation, and misordering. It was found that

omission were 9 occurrences, addition were 2 occurrences, misinformation were 19 occurrences, and misordering were 2 occurrences.

19.He said that they had already finished the work.

The right answer: He said, “They have already finished the work.”

Based on the table, it has shown that the total students’ errors which occurred in the nineteenth question were 33 errors. The errors were divided in 4 types of errors, they were omission, addition, misinformation, and misordering. It was found that omission were 8 occurrences, addition were 4 occurrences, misinformation were 19 occurrences, and misinformation were 2 occurrences.

20.They said that they had broken their mother’s precious dishes and cups.

The right answer: They said, “We have broken our mother’s precious dishes and cups.”

Based on the table, it has shown that the total students’ errors which occurred in the twentieth question were 33 errors. The errors were divided in 4 types of errors, they were omission, addition, misinformation, and misordering. It was found that omission were 4 occurrences, addition were 5 occurrences, misinformation were 22 occurrences, and misordering were 2 occurrences.

From the explanations above, we can conclude the type of errors which is shown by the table:

TABLE 4

4.2.3The Dominant Types of Errors

Types of Errors Occurrence Percentage

cups.

13 K

They said that we have broken our mother precious dishes and cups. 

14 KS

They said, “They broked their mother’s precious dishes and cups.” 

15 MM

They said, “We broken our mother’s precious dishes and cups.” 

16 MRS

They said, “Whether we have broken our mother’s precious dishes and cups.” 

17 MAA

They said, “They had broke their mother’s precious dishes and cups.” 

18 NL

They said, “We have been broken our mother’s precious dishes and cups.” 

19 NIS They said, “We have been to broken our mother’s precious dishes and cups.” 

20 RRDNC

They said, “We has broken our mother’s precious dishes and cups.” 

21 RP

They said, “We have broken our precious mother’s dishes and cups.” 

22 RAS

They said, that they have broken their mother’s precious dishes and cups. 

23 RJ

They say, “They are broken their mother’s precious dishes and cups.” 

24 SSUBS

They said, “We have broke our mother’s precious dishes and cups.” 

been broken our mother’s precious dishes and cups.”

26 SK

They said, “We had broken our mother’s precious dishes and cups.” 

27 SRMT

They said, “That they have broken their mother’s precious dishes and cups.” 

28 S

They said, “We have been broken our mother’s precious dishes and cups.” 

29 TSS

They says, “We have broken their mother’s precious dishes and cups.” 

30 TAT

She says, “We had broken their mother’s precious dishes and cups.” 

31 VWSP

They said, “They have

broken their mother’s precious dishes and cups.”

32 WAS

They said, “They broked their mother’s precious dishes and cups.



33 W

They said, that they have broken their mother’s precious dishes and cups.

