Urban Corinth An Introduction ID

CHAPTER฀ONE

Urban฀Corinth:฀An฀Introduction
G.฀D.฀R.฀Sanders
THE฀GEOGRAPHY฀OF฀CORINTH
Corinth฀is฀located฀80฀km฀west฀of฀Athens฀on฀the฀south฀side฀of฀the฀Isthmus฀
of฀Corinth,฀a฀narrow฀neck฀of฀land฀connecting฀the฀Peloponnese฀to฀mainland฀
Greece฀(fi฀g.฀1.1).฀The฀isthmus฀separates฀the฀Corinthian฀Gulf฀from฀the฀Saronic฀
Gulf,฀and฀thus฀the฀Ionian฀Sea฀from฀the฀Aegean.฀The฀local฀geology฀is฀dominated฀
by฀marine฀and฀lacustrine฀sediments฀laid฀horizontally฀in฀bands฀of฀porous฀sandy฀
and฀pebbly฀limestone฀interbedded฀with฀impervious฀marl฀clays.฀Older฀Jurassic฀
limestone฀entities,฀such฀as฀Acrocorinth,฀extrude฀through฀the฀later฀deposits฀to฀
heights฀of฀over฀570฀m.฀Local฀uplift฀of฀the฀land฀relative฀to฀the฀sea฀has฀created฀
a฀series฀of฀broad฀terraces฀terminating฀in฀raised฀beaches฀marked฀by฀vertical฀
cliff฀faces.฀The฀city฀is฀situated฀on฀two฀of฀the฀terraces—one฀about฀60฀m,฀the฀
other฀about฀90฀m฀above฀sea฀level—at฀the฀foot฀of฀Acrocorinth,฀about฀3฀km฀
from฀the฀coast฀of฀the฀Gulf฀of฀Corinth.1฀At฀the฀exposure฀of฀the฀interfaces฀of฀
the฀limestone฀and฀underlying฀marl฀at฀the฀edges฀of฀the฀terraces฀are฀several฀
natural฀springs฀of฀abundant฀freshwater.2฀These฀springs฀are฀notably฀absent฀
from฀the฀region฀of฀the฀isthmus฀to฀the฀east,฀which฀to฀the฀present฀has฀always฀
been฀sparsely฀populated฀and฀cultivated.฀By฀contrast,฀the฀land฀in฀the฀plain฀to฀

Chris฀L.฀Hayward,฀“Geology฀of฀Corinth:฀the฀Study฀of฀a฀Basic฀Resource,”฀in฀Corinth,฀
the฀Centenary,฀1896–1996฀(ed.฀Charles฀K.฀Williams฀II฀and฀Nancy฀Bookidis;฀Corinth฀XX;฀
the฀Centenary,฀1896–1996
Princeton,฀N.J.:฀ASCS,฀2003)฀15–42.
2
Mark฀E.฀Landon,฀“Beyond฀Peirene:฀Toward฀a฀Broader฀View฀of฀Corinthian฀Water฀Supply,”฀
in฀ Corinth,฀ the฀ Centenary,฀ 1896–1996
1896–1996฀ (ed.฀ Charles฀ K.฀ Williams฀ II฀ and฀ Nancy฀ Bookidis;฀
Corinth฀XX;฀Princeton,฀N.J.:฀ASCS,฀2003)฀43–62.
1

2

Urban฀Religion฀in฀Roman฀Corinth

the฀west฀is฀fertile฀and฀well฀watered฀by฀springs฀and฀the฀seasonal฀rivers฀that฀
descend฀from฀the฀Ayios฀Vasilios฀valley฀and฀Mount฀Ziria฀to฀the฀south.
Not฀only฀did฀geology฀determine฀why฀Corinth฀is฀located฀where฀it฀is,฀but฀
the฀geological฀makeup฀of฀the฀Corinthia฀also฀provided฀the฀basic฀materials฀for฀
the฀city’s฀construction.฀The฀oolitic฀limestones฀of฀the฀marine฀sand฀bars฀extend฀

from฀Kenchreai฀on฀the฀Saronic฀Gulf฀to฀Sikyon฀and฀have฀been฀extensively฀
quarried฀for฀stone.3฀Quarries฀can฀be฀seen฀to฀the฀east฀and฀west฀of฀the฀Temple฀
of฀Apollo.฀The฀freshly฀exposed฀portion฀of฀this฀rock฀is฀so฀soft฀that฀it฀can฀be฀
cut฀with฀woodworking฀tools;฀indeed,฀there฀is฀evidence฀that฀early฀builders฀฀
used฀carpentry฀techniques฀in฀stone฀construction฀on฀the฀site.4฀On฀exposure฀
to฀air,฀the฀stone฀gradually฀forms฀a฀hard฀but฀brittle฀surface.฀So฀good฀was฀this฀
stone,฀ with฀ its฀ rich฀ reddish-yellowish฀ color,฀ that฀ it฀ was฀ exported฀ in฀ bulk฀
at฀great฀expense฀to฀Delphi฀and฀Epidauros฀and฀doubtless฀elsewhere฀for฀the฀
construction฀of฀temples.
Certain฀of฀the฀marl฀beds฀are฀a฀rich฀source฀of฀mortar฀and฀ceramics.฀The฀
calcarious฀ marl฀ is฀ easily฀ dug฀ and฀ reduced฀ to฀ a฀ fi฀ne฀ powder.฀A฀ little฀ heat฀
applied฀for฀a฀short฀duration฀is฀all฀that฀is฀required฀to฀calcine฀this฀powder฀to฀
calcium฀oxide.฀The฀addition฀of฀water฀reduces฀the฀oxide฀to฀hydroxide,฀and฀the฀
result฀is฀a฀white฀lime฀cement.฀These฀marls฀were฀also฀excavated,฀powdered,฀
slaked฀with฀water,฀and฀dried฀to฀a฀malleable฀clayey฀consistency.฀The฀clay฀was฀
formed฀into฀light฀weight฀vessels,฀painted,฀fi฀red฀in฀a฀kiln,฀and฀then฀probably฀
doused฀in฀water.฀Whether฀these฀vessels฀should฀be฀called฀ceramic฀or฀cement฀
is฀still฀being฀investigated.5฀In฀certain฀periods,฀they฀were฀exported฀widely฀in฀
the฀Eastern฀Mediterranean฀and฀as฀far฀as฀Spain฀to฀the฀west.
Finally,฀the฀tectonic฀fragmentation฀of฀the฀region฀has฀ensured฀the฀perennial฀

threat฀of฀earthquakes.฀Some฀of฀the฀more฀severe฀of฀these฀earthquakes฀have฀
destroyed฀major฀structures฀and฀have฀even฀disrupted฀the฀fl฀ow฀of฀local฀springs.฀
Scholars฀have฀spiced฀up฀the฀written฀history฀of฀Corinth฀with฀a฀liberal฀garnish฀
of฀real฀and฀imaginary฀seismic฀events;฀these฀have฀served฀to฀explain฀disruptions฀
in฀the฀archaeological฀record.฀Ongoing฀research฀by฀Nicholas฀Ambraseys,฀a฀
leading฀authority฀in฀seismic฀engineering,฀has฀shown,฀however,฀that฀we฀now฀
need฀to฀reconsider฀every฀seismic฀event฀that฀has฀been฀invoked฀to฀explain฀the฀

3
Chris฀L.฀Hayward,฀“High-Resolution฀Provenance฀Determination฀of฀Construction-Stone:฀
A฀Preliminary฀Study฀of฀Corinthian฀Oolitic฀Limestone฀Quarries฀at฀Examilia,”฀Geoarchaeology
11฀(1996)฀215–34.
4
Robin฀ F.฀ Rhodes,฀ “The฀ Earliest฀ Greek฀ Architecture฀ in฀ Corinth฀ and฀ the฀ 7th-Century฀
Temple฀on฀Temple฀Hill,”฀in฀Corinth,฀the฀Centenary,฀1896–1996฀(ed.฀Charles฀K.฀Williams฀II฀
the฀Centenary,฀1896–1996
and฀Nancy฀Bookidis;฀Corinth฀XX;฀Princeton,฀N.J.:฀ASCS,฀2003)฀85–94.
5
This฀research฀is฀being฀undertaken฀by฀G.฀D.฀R.฀Sanders,฀Louise฀Joyner,฀and฀Ian฀Whitbread.

Sanders฀/฀Urban฀Corinth:฀An฀Introduction

3

destruction฀of฀various฀phases฀of฀the฀city.฀His฀fi฀ndings,฀which฀have฀been฀generally฀accepted฀by฀geologists฀and฀seismologists฀alike,฀are฀that฀earthquakes฀in฀
Greece฀rarely฀exceeded฀a฀magnitude฀of฀6.5฀and฀never฀exceeded฀7.0฀on฀the฀
logarithmic฀Richter฀scale.฀According฀to฀Ambraseys฀and฀J.฀A.฀Jackson,฀the฀
nature฀of฀faults฀in฀Greece฀is฀such฀that฀the฀range฀of฀damage฀wrought฀by฀an฀
earthquake฀of฀such฀a฀magnitude฀is฀limited฀to฀a฀few฀tens฀of฀kilometers฀from฀the฀
epicentre.฀Thus,฀an฀earthquake฀such฀as฀the฀551฀/฀52฀C.E.฀earthquake฀recorded฀by฀
Procopius฀at฀Chaironeia฀in฀central฀Greece฀clearly฀did฀not฀have฀the฀catastrophic฀
effect฀on฀Corinth฀that฀three฀generations฀of฀scholars฀have฀claimed.6
Corinth฀possessed฀four฀harbors.฀Schoenus฀and฀Poseidona฀were฀presumably฀
fairly฀simple฀docking฀facilities฀that฀served฀either฀end฀of฀the฀Diolkos.7฀The฀Diolkos฀was฀a฀paved฀portage฀road฀built฀across฀the฀6-km฀width฀of฀the฀isthmus,฀with฀
an฀average฀gradient฀of฀about฀1.5%.฀It฀was฀probably฀constructed฀by฀the฀tyrant฀
Periander฀in฀the฀sixth฀century฀B.C.E.,฀and฀is฀scored฀by฀the฀wheels฀of฀transport฀
vehicles฀whose฀wheelbase฀averaged฀1.5฀m฀across.฀On฀either฀side฀of฀the฀paved฀
portion฀were฀earthen฀roads.฀Historical฀sources฀mention฀six฀attempts—fi฀ve฀successful฀and฀one฀unsuccessful—to฀portage฀warships฀over฀the฀isthmus฀between฀
428฀ and฀ 30฀ B.C.E.฀ Niketas฀ Oryphas,฀ revealing฀ his฀ familiarity฀ with฀ ancient฀
literature,฀effected฀a฀sixth฀successful฀crossing฀in฀881฀C.E.

Most฀commentators฀insist฀that฀the฀Diolkos฀was฀used฀principally฀for฀military฀
purposes,฀but฀from฀the฀vulgar฀humour฀of฀the฀Thesmophoriazousae฀of฀Aristophanes,฀one฀gets฀a฀very฀different฀impression.8฀Mnesilochos,฀an฀interloper฀among฀
women฀and฀himself฀disguised฀as฀a฀woman,฀hides฀his฀masculinity฀by฀pushing฀
his฀huge฀stage฀prop฀penis฀back฀between฀his฀legs.฀When฀Kleisthenes฀attempts฀to฀
fi฀nd฀it฀from฀behind,฀Mnesilochus฀pushes฀it฀to฀the฀front.฀This฀action฀is฀repeated฀
several฀times.฀Finally,฀Kleisthenes฀cries฀in฀exasperation,฀“You฀have฀a฀sort฀of฀
isthmus,฀bro’,฀hauling฀your฀prow฀to฀and฀fro฀more฀often฀than฀the฀Corinthians฀
[haul฀ships฀across฀the฀Diolkos].”฀We฀can฀surmise฀that฀the฀Diolkos฀was฀actively฀
and฀regularly฀used฀for฀merchant฀ships,฀or฀else฀there฀would฀be฀no฀humor฀in฀
Kleisthenes’฀quip.฀The฀triremes฀that฀crossed฀the฀Diolkos฀were฀comparable฀in฀
size฀and฀capacity฀to฀the฀Kyrenia฀ship฀(14฀m฀long฀x฀4.2฀m฀wide,฀laden฀weight฀
ca.฀39฀tons).฀Mr.฀Sarris,฀the฀shipbuilder฀of฀the฀Kyrenia฀replica,฀assures฀me฀
that,฀properly฀supported฀by฀the฀keelsom,฀a฀ship฀of฀those฀dimensions฀could฀be฀
6
N.฀N.฀Ambraseys฀฀and฀A.฀Jackson,฀“Seismicity฀and฀Associated฀Strain฀of฀Central฀Greece฀
between฀1890฀and฀1988,”Geophysics฀Journal฀International฀101฀(1990)฀663–708.
Geophysics฀Journal฀International
7
G.฀ Raepsaet,฀ “Le฀ Diolkos฀ de฀ l’isthme฀ à฀ Corinthe:฀ son฀ trace,฀ son฀ fonctionnement,”฀
BCH

BCH฀117฀(1993)฀233–56.
8
Aristophanes,฀ Thesmophoriazousae฀ (ed.฀ Benjamin฀ Bickley฀ Rogers;฀ LCL;฀ Cambridge,฀
Mass.:฀Harvard฀University฀Press,฀1924)฀line฀648.฀Since฀Rogers฀did฀not฀translate฀the฀passage,฀
the฀rendition฀is฀mine.

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Urban฀Religion฀in฀Roman฀Corinth

moved฀considerable฀distances—even฀with฀its฀full฀cargo฀aboard—without฀the฀
slightest฀damage.9
Such฀traffi฀c฀must฀have฀kept฀a฀society฀of฀wagoners฀and฀their฀teams฀of฀oxen฀
fully฀occupied.฀The฀portage฀proved฀so฀valuable฀that฀efforts฀were฀made฀to฀
replace฀it฀with฀a฀canal.฀The฀emperor฀Nero฀actually฀began฀work฀on฀the฀canal฀
by฀personally฀dumping฀the฀fi฀rst฀shovelful฀of฀earth฀into฀a฀golden฀bucket,฀using฀
a฀golden฀shovel.฀He฀died฀before฀much฀progress฀could฀be฀made,฀but฀not฀before฀
his฀image฀as฀the฀god฀Herakles฀had฀been฀inscribed฀in฀one฀wall฀of฀the฀cutting.฀
Under฀Vespasian,฀about฀800฀yards฀of฀canal฀were฀excavated฀to฀a฀depth฀of฀90฀
feet,฀using฀6,000฀Jewish฀slaves฀captured฀in฀the฀sack฀of฀Jerusalem,฀before฀the฀

project฀was฀fi฀nally฀abandoned.10฀Herodes฀Atticus,฀the฀Athenian฀teacher฀of฀philosophy฀and฀wealthy฀patron฀of฀extravagant฀monuments,฀briefl฀y฀contemplated฀
the฀completion฀of฀Nero’s฀and฀Vespasian’s฀work฀but฀demurred฀on฀the฀grounds฀
that฀it฀was฀hubristic฀to฀succeed฀where฀emperors฀had฀failed.฀By฀the฀time฀the฀
canal฀was฀fi฀nally฀completed฀in฀1893,฀the฀Levant฀trade฀had฀waned.
Kenchreai฀ on฀ the฀ Saronic฀ Gulf฀ and฀ Lechaion฀ on฀ the฀ Corinthian฀ Gulf฀
were฀ altogether฀ different฀ kinds฀ of฀ harbors.฀ Kenchreai฀ was฀ excavated฀ by฀
the฀American฀ School฀ of฀ Classical฀ Studies฀ in฀ the฀ 1960s.11฀ It฀ consists฀ of฀ a฀
settlement฀on฀the฀south฀slopes฀of฀a฀promontory฀with฀a฀pair฀of฀harbor฀moles฀
encircling฀a฀round฀basin฀facing฀southeast.฀Architecture,฀pottery,฀and฀coins฀
derive฀from฀many฀centuries฀of฀occupation฀and฀include฀shrines฀of฀the฀gods฀
(one฀perhaps฀dedicated฀to฀Isis)฀and฀a฀small฀early฀Christian฀basilica฀of฀the฀
sixth฀century.฀Lechaion฀must฀be฀considered฀the฀principal฀harbor.฀Located฀on฀
the฀coast฀north฀of฀the฀city,฀the฀harbor฀consists฀of฀a฀series฀of฀landlocked฀basins฀
accessible฀from฀the฀sea฀by฀a฀narrow฀channel.฀The฀outer฀works฀of฀the฀harbor฀
included฀three฀long฀moles,฀two฀for฀a฀square฀basin฀and฀the฀third฀to฀protect฀the฀
entrance฀to฀the฀inner฀harbor.฀Sporadic฀excavations฀in฀the฀area฀indicate฀that฀
the฀associated฀settlement฀was฀extensive.฀The฀most฀concentrated฀campaign฀
of฀archaeological฀work,฀that฀of฀the฀American฀School฀in฀the฀1960s,฀revealed฀
an฀enormous฀early฀Christian฀basilica฀between฀the฀inner฀harbor฀and฀the฀sea.12
M.฀L.฀Katzef,฀“The฀Kyrenia฀Ship,”฀in฀A฀History฀of฀Seafaring฀(ed.฀G.฀F.฀Bass;฀London,฀

1982)฀50–52;฀and฀idem฀and฀S.฀W.฀Katzef,฀“Building฀a฀Replica฀of฀an฀Ancient฀Greek฀Merchantman,”฀in฀Proceedings฀of฀the฀1st฀International฀Symposium฀on฀Ship฀Construction฀in฀Antiquity
(ed.฀H.฀E.฀Tzalas;฀Athens:฀n.p.,฀1989)฀163–75.
10
฀On฀this฀point,฀see฀the฀essay฀by฀David฀Gilman฀Romano฀in฀this฀volume฀(pp.฀xxx–xxx,฀
esp.฀xxx).
11
Robert฀L.฀Scranton,฀Jospeh฀W.฀Shaw,฀and฀Leila฀Ibrahim,฀Topography฀and฀Architecture,฀
vol.฀1฀of฀Kenchreai,฀Eastern฀Port฀of฀Corinth฀(Leiden:฀Brill,฀1978).
12
D.฀I.฀Pallas,฀“Korinth,”฀Reallexikon฀zur฀Byzantinischen฀Kunst฀(Stuttgart:฀Hiersemann,฀
1966–฀) 4:745–811.
9

Sanders฀/฀Urban฀Corinth:฀An฀Introduction

5

Together฀these฀four฀harbors฀attest฀the฀sheer฀volume฀of฀Corinth’s฀commercial฀
interests฀at฀various฀times.฀
Traffi฀c฀moving฀north฀and฀south฀across฀the฀isthmus฀was฀channeled฀into฀

narrow฀corridors฀along฀the฀Kakia฀Skala฀or฀over฀Mount฀Geraneion.฀At฀one฀end฀
of฀the฀corridor,฀routes฀fanned฀out฀to฀Athens฀and฀to฀Thebes฀and฀beyond.฀At฀the฀
other฀end,฀the฀routes฀led฀along฀the฀coast฀west฀towards฀Patras,฀east฀to฀Epidauros,฀
and฀through฀passes฀on฀either฀side฀of฀Acrocorinth฀into฀the฀Peloponnese,฀to฀
the฀Argolid฀and฀Arcadia.฀The฀historical฀communications฀network฀of฀southern฀
Greece฀has฀recently฀been฀treated฀purely฀as฀a฀problem฀in฀graph฀theory.฀This฀
is฀an฀application฀most฀useful฀to฀economic฀geographers฀and฀perhaps฀familiar฀
to฀most฀of฀us฀as฀the฀particular฀talent฀of฀the฀title฀character฀in฀the฀fi฀lm฀Good฀
Will฀Hunting.฀Corinth฀was฀unsurprisingly฀found฀to฀be฀at฀the฀mathematical฀
and฀geographical฀center฀of฀the฀Roman฀province฀of฀Achaia.13
As฀in฀modern฀commerce,฀whether฀building฀a฀cement฀factory฀or฀opening฀
a฀downtown฀bar,฀location฀has฀always฀been฀important฀to฀commercial฀success.฀
This฀much฀may฀have฀occurred฀to฀the฀apostle฀Paul฀when฀he฀chose฀Corinth฀
for฀his฀ministry.฀In฀the฀middle฀of฀the฀fi฀rst฀century฀C.E.,฀Corinth฀was฀a฀perfect฀
place฀for฀the฀dissemination฀of฀goods฀and฀ideas—a฀multilingual,฀polytheistic,฀
cosmopolitan฀community฀visited฀by฀travelers,฀merchants,฀and฀seamen฀from฀all฀
over฀the฀Mediterranean.฀It฀is฀not฀diffi฀cult฀to฀imagine฀why฀the฀moral฀condition฀
of฀commerce-oriented฀Corinth,฀its฀inhabitants,฀and฀visitors฀still฀concerned฀
Paul฀deeply฀some฀two฀hundred฀years฀after฀the฀infamous฀cult฀of฀Aphrodite฀on฀
Acrocorinth฀had฀closed฀its฀doors.14

Well-watered,฀overlooked฀by฀an฀imposing฀acropolis,฀fl฀anked฀by฀a฀large฀
fertile฀plain฀to฀the฀north฀and฀northwest,฀and฀located฀between฀two฀seas,฀Corinth฀
commanded฀the฀principal฀nodal฀point฀in฀the฀land฀and฀sea฀communications฀of฀
southern฀Greece.฀Its฀strategic฀and฀commercial฀position฀was฀supplemented฀by฀
valuable฀natural฀resources฀for฀export,฀including฀building฀materials,฀excellent฀
clays฀for฀ceramics฀and฀mortars,฀wood,฀and฀agricultural฀produce.฀It฀was฀not฀so฀
much฀Corinth’s฀own฀riches฀that฀were฀being฀moved,฀however.฀The฀importance฀
of฀Corinth฀was฀as฀an฀entrepôt฀through฀which฀the฀produce฀of฀other฀regions฀
was฀shipped.฀

G.฀D.฀R.฀Sanders฀and฀I.฀K.฀Whitbread,฀Central฀Places฀and฀Major฀Roads฀in฀the฀Peloponnese,฀BSA฀85฀(1990)฀333–61.
14
On฀Corinthian฀Aphrodite,฀see฀the฀essays฀by฀John฀R.฀Lanci฀(pp.฀xxx–xxx)฀and฀Charles฀K.฀
Williams฀II฀(pp.฀XXX–XXX)฀in฀this฀volume.
13

6

Urban฀Religion฀in฀Roman฀Corinth

HISTORY฀OF฀THE฀CORINTH฀EXCAVATIONS
The฀American฀School฀of฀Classical฀Studies฀at฀Athens฀has฀been฀excavating฀
at฀Corinth฀since฀1896.฀Over฀the฀course฀of฀the฀twentieth฀century,฀scholarly฀
interests฀have฀changed฀considerably.฀The฀earliest฀excavators฀were฀largely฀
concerned฀with฀ancient฀topography฀and฀planned฀to฀reveal฀as฀much฀of฀the฀
center฀of฀the฀pre-Roman฀city฀as฀they฀could.฀While฀they฀revealed฀large฀portions฀
of฀the฀center฀of฀Corinth,฀their฀task฀was฀made฀more฀diffi฀cult฀by฀Mummius’s฀
sack฀in฀146฀ B.C.E.฀and฀by฀the฀foundation฀of฀a฀Roman฀colony฀in฀44฀ B.C.E.,฀
when฀the฀city฀plan฀was฀re-engineered฀and฀settlers฀covered฀or฀even฀tore฀out฀
the฀core฀of฀the฀Classical฀city.
The฀years฀between฀1925฀and฀1940฀saw฀continued฀but฀rather฀more฀systematic฀clearance฀of฀the฀theater฀and฀forum฀areas.฀Interest฀shifted฀from฀topographic฀
to฀taxonomic฀and฀chronological฀concerns.฀At฀the฀time,฀however,฀it฀was฀still฀
generally฀the฀practice฀to฀excavate฀with฀large฀teams฀of฀nonspecialist฀laborers฀
under฀limited฀supervision.฀They฀dug฀from฀topsoil฀to฀forum฀level,฀a฀depth฀of฀
3–4฀m,฀in฀a฀single฀season,฀and฀although฀the฀recovery฀of฀data฀was฀far฀superior฀to฀the฀earlier฀campaigns,฀it฀was฀not฀what฀one฀would฀now฀demand.฀The฀
excavators฀generated฀a฀large฀number฀of฀books฀and฀articles฀on฀urban฀history,฀
buildings,฀inscriptions,฀sculpture,฀ceramics,฀and฀minor฀objects.฀This฀literature฀has฀shaped฀present฀popular฀conceptions฀of฀Corinth฀and฀set฀many฀of฀the฀
standards฀on฀which฀archaeologists฀in฀the฀Eastern฀Mediterranean฀still฀rely.
From฀the฀mid-1960s฀to฀the฀present,฀the฀archaeological฀study฀of฀Corinth฀
has฀undergone฀a฀sustained฀period฀of฀ideological฀and฀methodological฀evolution฀if฀not฀revolution.฀During฀this฀exciting฀intellectual฀passage,฀scholars฀have฀
begun฀to฀focus฀on฀the฀human฀rather฀than฀the฀monumental฀side฀of฀antiquity,฀
and฀ post-Classical฀ archaeology฀ has฀ come฀ into฀ its฀ own.฀ Despite฀ the฀ sheer฀
volume฀ of฀ work฀ undertaken฀ in฀ these฀ thirty-fi฀ve฀ years,฀ the฀ overall฀ plan฀ of฀
the฀site฀has฀changed฀remarkably฀little.฀Our฀understanding฀of฀the฀urban฀and฀
historical฀landscape,฀however,฀has฀been฀transformed.฀Systematic฀excavation฀
by฀small฀teams฀of฀trained฀technicians฀supervised฀by฀a฀recording฀archaeologist฀
has฀permitted฀close฀control฀of฀the฀stratigraphic฀sequences.฀New฀procedures฀
for฀ the฀ recording฀ of฀ fi฀nds฀ were฀ instituted,฀ context฀ materials฀ and฀ not฀ just฀
remarkable฀objects฀were฀saved,฀and฀preliminary฀reports฀of฀work฀appeared฀
annually฀in฀the฀journal฀Hesperia.฀It฀would฀be฀fair฀to฀say฀that฀now฀equal฀portions฀of฀the฀research฀are฀done฀by฀descriptive฀scientists฀with฀hand฀lenses฀and฀
microscopes฀and฀by฀researchers฀engaged฀in฀the฀painstaking฀archaeological฀
autopsy฀of฀earlier฀records.

Sanders฀/฀Urban฀Corinth:฀An฀Introduction

7

Coins฀have฀been฀supplanted฀by฀pottery฀as฀the฀currency฀of฀chronology.฀
Coins฀are฀common฀and฀survive฀well,฀and฀they฀provide฀refreshingly฀specifi฀c฀
information฀about฀their฀date฀of฀issue—but฀the฀right฀coin฀is฀rarely฀found฀in฀
the฀right฀place.฀Until฀comparatively฀recently,฀ceramics฀specialists฀tended฀to฀
concentrate฀on฀fi฀ne฀wares฀because฀the฀accepted฀bias฀was฀that฀coarse฀wares฀
were฀not฀worth฀studying฀because฀they฀were฀not฀diagnostic.฀Coarse฀wares,฀
however,฀comprise฀the฀large฀majority฀of฀fi฀nds฀from฀any฀context.฀Some฀periods฀
were฀neglected฀simply฀because฀they฀were฀unfashionable,฀and฀Late฀Roman฀
pottery฀assemblages฀are฀a฀case฀in฀point.฀The฀study฀of฀Late฀Roman฀Corinth฀
was฀driven฀by฀coins฀and฀disasters฀until฀the฀publication฀of฀a฀Late฀Roman฀fi฀ne฀
pottery฀survey฀by฀John฀Hayes฀in฀1972.15฀Unfortunately,฀the฀heroic฀efforts฀
of฀Demetrios฀Pallas฀in฀the฀basilicas฀and฀James฀Wiseman฀at฀the฀gymnasium฀
came฀too฀early฀to฀benefi฀t฀from฀Hayes’s฀volume.16
Pottery฀is฀ubiquitous฀in฀archaeological฀contexts฀and฀can฀be฀used฀to฀date฀
phases฀of฀activity฀with฀a฀fair฀degree฀of฀precision.฀Kathleen฀Slane’s฀volume฀
on฀ the฀ Demeter฀ sanctuary฀ and฀ her฀ specialist฀ articles฀ have฀ given฀ us฀ some฀
idea฀of฀what฀Corinthian฀pottery฀looked฀like฀through฀the฀Roman฀period.17฀It฀
was฀only฀with฀the฀excavations฀east฀of฀the฀theater฀in฀the฀1980s฀that฀suffi฀cient฀
quantities฀of฀well-excavated฀deposits,฀many฀retained฀in฀their฀entirety,฀enabled฀
Slane฀ to฀ undertake฀ a฀ thorough฀ diachronic฀ survey฀ of฀ Roman฀ pottery฀ from฀
the฀foundation฀of฀the฀colony฀to฀the฀beginning฀of฀the฀seventh฀century.18฀This฀
study฀is฀based฀on฀statistical฀analyses฀of฀number฀and฀weight฀by฀type฀and฀on฀
stratigraphic฀relations.19฀The฀fi฀nal฀publication,฀which฀is฀eagerly฀anticipated,฀
will฀be฀the฀fi฀rst฀complete฀overview฀of฀Roman฀pottery฀typology฀for฀a฀Greek฀
site.฀ It฀ will฀ show฀ how฀ the฀ proportions฀ of฀ different฀ pottery฀ types฀ changed฀
over฀time;฀also,฀analysis฀of฀imports฀will฀allow฀researchers฀to฀identify฀shifts฀
in฀economic฀contacts.฀This฀tool฀will฀enable฀scholars฀to฀reassess฀old฀contexts฀
and฀ redraft฀ our฀ history฀ of฀ the฀ city.฀ Its฀ impact฀ should฀ be฀ felt฀ well฀ beyond฀
Corinth฀and฀even฀Greece.
J.฀W.฀Hayes,฀Late฀Roman฀Pottery฀(London:฀British฀School฀at฀Rome,฀1972).
Pallas,฀“Korinth”;฀and฀James฀Wiseman,฀“Excavations฀in฀the฀Gymnasium฀Area.฀1969–
1970,”฀Hesperia฀41฀(1972)฀1–42.
17
Slane,฀Kathleen฀W.฀The฀Sanctuary฀of฀Demeter฀and฀Kore:฀The฀Roman฀Pottery฀and฀Lamps
(Corinth฀XVIII.2;฀Princeton,฀N.J.:฀ASCS,฀1990).
18
Charles฀K.฀Williams฀II฀and฀Orestes฀H.฀Zervos,฀“Corinth,฀1988:฀East฀of฀the฀Theater,”฀
Hesperia฀58฀(1989)฀1–50;฀for฀bibliography,฀see฀the฀essay฀by฀Charles฀K.฀Williams฀II฀in฀this฀
volume฀(pp.฀xxx–xxx).
19
Kathleen฀W.฀Slane,฀“Corinth’s฀Roman฀Pottery:฀Quantifi฀cation฀and฀Meaning,”฀in฀Corinth,฀
the฀Centenary,฀1896–1996
the฀Centenary,฀1896–1996฀(ed.฀Charles฀K.฀Williams฀II฀and฀Nancy฀Bookidis;฀Corinth฀XX;฀
Princeton,฀N.J.:฀ASCS,฀2003)฀321–36.
15
16

8

Urban฀Religion฀in฀Roman฀Corinth

The฀way฀in฀which฀we฀look฀at฀dead฀Corinthians฀has฀also฀changed.฀Charles฀
Williams’s฀excavations฀south฀of฀the฀Museum฀encountered฀a฀packed฀cemetery฀
dating฀to฀the฀Frankish฀period.20฀To฀cope฀with฀the฀excavation฀and฀analysis฀
of฀this฀complicated฀mass฀of฀evidence,฀anthropologists฀Art฀Rohn฀and฀Ethne฀
Barnes฀were฀invited฀to฀excavate฀and฀study฀the฀burials.21฀Rohn฀has฀not฀only฀
trained฀our฀specialist฀pickmen฀to฀articulate฀burials฀and฀then฀remove฀them;฀he฀
has฀also฀begun฀to฀examine฀changes฀in฀burial฀practice฀through฀time.฀Barnes฀
is฀able฀to฀discern฀in฀bones฀repetitive฀stress฀patterns฀that฀betray฀regular฀heavy฀
exercise฀of฀different฀kinds.฀She฀can฀also฀recognize฀the฀effects฀of฀genetics,฀
illness,฀ malnutrition,฀ and฀ violence.฀Although฀ they฀ started฀ with฀ Medieval฀
and฀continued฀with฀post-Medieval฀burials,฀Rohn฀and฀Barnes฀now฀include฀
Roman฀and฀earlier฀material฀in฀their฀research.฀Corinth฀now฀has฀such฀a฀range฀
of฀fascinating฀pathologies฀that฀a฀special฀facility฀was฀recently฀opened฀to฀house฀
a฀comparative฀collection฀for฀study.
Despite฀the฀excavation฀of฀many฀hundreds฀of฀Roman฀tombs,฀only฀individual฀
tombs฀have฀occasionally฀been฀published.฀In฀the฀1960s,฀Henry฀Robinson฀was฀
invited฀to฀excavate฀in฀advance฀of฀the฀construction฀of฀a฀drainage฀channel฀along฀
the฀edge฀of฀the฀north฀terrace฀of฀Corinth,฀where฀he฀found฀several฀signifi฀cant฀
graves฀dating฀from฀the฀fi฀rst฀through฀fi฀fth฀centuries฀ C.E.฀Mary฀Walbank฀and฀
Kathleen฀Slane฀are฀in฀the฀fi฀nal฀stages฀of฀producing฀a฀book-length฀publication฀
of฀these฀discoveries.22
The฀topography฀of฀the฀Corinthia฀has฀received฀rather฀patchy฀coverage,฀but฀
a฀comprehensive฀picture฀is฀gradually฀emerging.฀James฀Wiseman’s฀important฀
extensive฀survey฀of฀the฀region฀put฀many฀sites฀on฀the฀map.23฀Other฀investigators฀
added฀topoi฀to฀this฀basic฀work;฀two฀new฀doctoral฀theses฀and฀a฀third฀nearing฀
completion฀have฀examined฀the฀borders฀of฀Corinth฀with฀Epidaurus,฀Sikyon,฀
and฀Argos.24฀The฀recently฀completed฀Eastern฀Corinthia฀archaeological฀survey฀
was฀an฀intensive฀survey฀of฀a฀much฀smaller฀territory฀that฀will฀add฀a฀new฀dimension฀to฀our฀understanding฀of฀the฀historical฀geography.฀Mary฀Walbank฀was฀
Charles฀K.฀Williams฀II,฀L.฀M.฀Snyder,฀Ethne฀Barnes,฀and฀Orestes฀H.฀Zervos,฀“Frankish฀
Corinth,฀1997,”฀Hesperia฀67฀(1998)฀223–81.
21
Ethne฀Barnes,฀“The฀Dead฀do฀Tell฀Tales,”฀in฀Corinth,฀the฀Centenary,฀1896–1996฀(ed.฀
the฀Centenary,฀1896–1996
Charles฀ K.฀ Williams฀ II฀ and฀ Nancy฀ Bookidis;฀ Corinth฀ XX;฀ Princeton,฀ N.J.:฀ASCS,฀ 2003)฀
435–43.
22
See฀the฀essay฀by฀Mary฀E.฀Hoskins฀Walbank฀in฀this฀volume฀(pp.฀xxx–xxx).
23
James฀Wiseman,฀The฀Land฀of฀the฀Ancient฀Corinthians฀(SIMA฀50;฀Göteborg:฀P.฀Åström,฀
1978).
24
Y.฀A.฀Lolos,฀“The฀Hadrianic฀Aqueduct฀of฀Corinth,”฀Hesperia฀66฀(1997)฀271–314;฀and฀
M.฀D.฀Dixon,฀“Disputed฀Territories:฀Interstate฀Arbitration฀in฀the฀Northeast฀Peloponnese,฀ca.฀
250–150฀ B.C.”฀(Ph.D.฀diss.,฀Ohio฀State฀University,฀2000).
20

Sanders฀/฀Urban฀Corinth:฀An฀Introduction

9

the฀fi฀rst฀to฀discuss฀Roman฀land฀division฀in฀Corinthia.25฀David฀Romano฀and฀
Panos฀Doukellis฀have฀since฀independently฀extrapolated฀different฀schemes฀
of฀mensuration฀on฀the฀basis฀of฀crop฀marks,฀fi฀eld฀boundaries,฀and฀roads.26฀In฀
the฀past฀couple฀of฀years,฀resistivity฀survey฀has฀added฀much฀of฀topographical฀
interest฀to฀the฀picture฀presented฀by฀the฀excavated฀remains.27
The฀American฀School฀has฀also฀been฀active฀in฀excavation฀outside฀of฀the฀city฀
but฀within฀its฀territory.฀Elizabeth฀Gebhard฀and฀her฀colleagues฀have฀continued฀
the฀ excavations฀ and฀ publication฀ program฀ started฀ by฀ Oscar฀ Broneer฀ at฀ the฀
major฀Corinthian฀sanctuary฀dedicated฀to฀Poseidon฀and฀Palaimon฀at฀Isthmia.28
Timothy฀Gregory฀and฀his฀colleagues฀have฀continued฀Paul฀Clement’s฀work฀in฀
the฀Late฀Roman฀fortress฀and฀Roman฀baths,฀also฀at฀Isthmia.29฀Robert฀Scranton฀
excavated฀above฀and฀below฀the฀water฀line฀at฀Kenchreai.30฀In฀addition฀to฀the฀
American฀work,฀the฀British฀School฀excavated฀and฀published฀the฀sanctuary฀
of฀Hera฀at฀Perachora฀under฀Humfry฀Payne฀and฀later฀Richard฀Tomlinson.31
Many฀of฀these฀diverse฀threads฀of฀more฀recent฀research฀have฀already฀appeared฀
as฀books,฀as฀articles฀in฀Hesperia,฀and฀elsewhere.฀The฀most฀important฀new฀
synopsis฀ is฀ the฀ volume฀ originating฀ in฀ the฀ 1996฀ centenary฀ conference.32฀ It฀
contains฀twenty-seven฀papers฀by฀active฀students฀of฀Corinth’s฀archaeology฀
25
Mary฀E.฀Hoskins฀Walbank,฀“The฀Foundation฀and฀Planning฀of฀Early฀Roman฀Corinth,”฀
JRA฀10฀(1997)฀95–130.
26
David฀G.฀Romano,฀“City฀Planning,฀Centuriation,฀and฀Land฀Division฀in฀Roman฀Corinth:฀
Colonia฀Laus฀Iulia฀Corinthiensis฀and฀Colonia฀Iulia฀Flavia฀Augusta฀Corinthiensis,”฀in฀Corinth,฀
the฀Centenary,฀1896–1996
the฀Centenary,฀1896–1996฀(ed.฀Charles฀K.฀Williams฀II฀and฀Nancy฀Bookidis;฀Corinth฀XX;฀
Princeton,฀N.J.:฀ASCS,฀2003)฀279–301;฀Panagiotis฀N.฀Doukellis,฀“Le฀territoire฀de฀la฀colonie฀
romaine฀de฀Corinthe,”฀in฀Structures฀rurales฀et฀sociétés฀antiques:฀actes฀du฀colloque฀de฀Corfou,฀
14–16฀mai฀1992฀(ed.฀Panagiotis฀N.฀Doukellis฀and฀Lina฀G.฀Mendoni;฀Paris:฀Les฀belles฀lettres,฀
1994)฀ 359–90;฀ and฀ Mary฀ E.฀ Hoskins฀ Walbank,฀ “What’s฀ in฀ a฀ Name?฀ Corinth฀ Under฀ the฀
Flavians,”฀ZPE฀139฀(2002)฀251–64.
ZPE
27
The฀results฀of฀this฀ongoing฀survey฀will฀be฀published฀in฀Hesperia฀by฀G.฀D.฀R.฀Sanders฀
and฀M.฀Boyd.
28
For฀bibliography,฀see฀the฀essay฀by฀Elizabeth฀R.฀Gebhard฀in฀this฀volume฀(pp.฀xxx–xxx).
29
Timothy฀ E.฀ Gregory,฀ The฀ Hexamilion฀ and฀ the฀ Fortress฀ (Isthmia฀ V;฀ Princeton,฀ N.J.:฀
Princeton฀University฀Press,฀1993);฀and฀The฀Corinthia฀in฀the฀Roman฀Period:฀Including฀the฀Papers฀
Given฀at฀a฀Symposium฀Held฀at฀The฀Ohio฀State฀University฀on฀7–9฀March฀1991฀(ed.฀Timothy฀
E.฀Gregory;฀JRASup฀8;฀Ann฀Arbor,฀Mich.:฀Journal฀of฀Roman฀Archaeology,฀1993).
30
Scranton,฀Shaw,฀and฀Ibrahim,฀Topography฀and฀Architecture.
31
R.฀ Tomlinson,฀ “Perachora,”฀ in฀ Le฀ Sanctuaire฀ Grec฀ (ed.฀ Albert฀ Schachter฀ and฀ Jean฀
Bingen;฀Entretiens฀sur฀l’Antiquité฀classique฀37;฀Geneva:฀Fondation฀Hardt,฀1992)฀321–51.฀
For฀a฀more฀recent฀appraisal฀of฀the฀temple฀and฀cult฀see฀B.฀Menadier,฀“The฀Sixth฀Century฀BC฀
Temple฀and฀the฀Sanctuary฀and฀Cult฀of฀Hera฀Akraia,฀Perachora”฀(Ph.D.฀diss.,฀University฀of฀
Cincinnati,฀1995).
32
Charles฀K.฀Williams฀II฀and฀Nancy฀Bookidis,฀eds.,฀Corinth,฀the฀Centenary,฀1896–1996
(Corinth฀XX;฀Princeton,฀N.J.:฀ASCS,฀2003)฀

10

Urban฀Religion฀in฀Roman฀Corinth

stating฀their฀current฀ideas฀and฀features฀a฀complete฀bibliography฀of฀Corinth฀
from฀the฀Neolithic฀to฀Late฀Medieval฀periods.฀
In฀his฀early฀years฀as฀director,฀Williams฀concentrated฀on฀the฀reinterpretation฀
of฀some฀seventy฀years฀of฀scholarship฀by฀restudying฀the฀earlier฀excavation฀
records฀and฀by฀undertaking฀new฀excavations฀in฀and฀around฀the฀forum.฀Over฀
the฀course฀of฀fi฀fteen฀years฀he฀was฀able฀to฀document฀how฀the฀city฀developed฀
over฀time,฀and฀a฀brief฀overview฀of฀his฀synthesis฀follows฀below.33

DEVELOPMENT฀OF฀THE฀URBAN฀AREA
The฀area฀of฀the฀site฀opened฀to฀date฀concentrates฀largely฀on฀the฀Roman฀forum฀
and฀its฀surrounds.฀This฀zone฀is฀the฀transition,฀marked฀by฀a฀steep฀slope฀(10–20%฀
grade฀over15฀m)฀between฀the฀two฀terraces฀on฀which฀Corinth฀was฀built.฀Here฀
the฀natural฀drainage฀pattern฀and฀spring฀line฀has฀created฀a฀fairly฀broad฀valley฀
and฀a฀relatively฀easy฀transition฀for฀wheeled฀and฀pedestrian฀traffi฀c฀between฀
the฀terraces.฀The฀upper฀valley฀is฀occupied฀by฀the฀forum฀and฀the฀lower฀valley฀
by฀the฀Lechaion฀Road.
There฀is฀ample฀evidence฀for฀prehistoric฀settlement฀dating฀from฀the฀Neolithic฀ to฀ sub-Mycenean฀ periods.฀ Corinth฀ is฀ reckoned฀ to฀ have฀ synoecized,฀
that฀is,฀emerged฀as฀a฀polity,฀in฀the฀eighth฀century฀B.C.E.,฀sending฀out฀trading฀
colonies฀to฀Syracuse฀and฀Corfu.฀Archaeologically฀at฀Corinth฀there฀is฀little฀
evidence฀for฀the฀form฀and฀extent฀of฀the฀city.฀The฀earliest฀Geometric฀period฀
is฀represented฀by฀domestic฀debris฀in฀the฀valley฀fl฀oor,฀graves,฀and฀a฀well.฀In฀
the฀second฀half฀of฀the฀eighth฀century,฀however,฀burial฀was฀kept฀separate฀from฀
the฀residential฀area.฀At฀the฀same฀time,฀the฀fi฀rst฀stone฀architecture฀becomes฀
evident฀and฀the฀watercourses฀of฀the฀springs฀are฀artifi฀cially฀channelled.฀Evidence฀of฀roads฀survives.฀These฀roads฀direct฀traffi฀c฀from฀the฀south฀and฀from฀
the฀southwest฀towards฀the฀north฀at฀the฀mouth฀of฀the฀valley.
In฀the฀seventh฀century฀B.C.E.,฀the฀fi฀rst฀temple฀was฀built฀on฀the฀rise฀to฀the฀
north฀of฀the฀forum. 34฀The฀street฀plan฀developed฀with฀the฀addition฀of฀roads฀
parallel฀ to฀ the฀ Geometric฀ streets;฀ these฀ roads฀ also฀ channeled฀ traffi฀c฀ from฀
the฀ south฀ and฀ west฀ towards฀ the฀ north.฀The฀ Sacred฀ Spring฀ was฀ elaborated฀
and฀perhaps฀at฀this฀point฀fi฀rst฀had฀cult฀associated฀with฀it.฀In฀the฀mid-seventh฀
33
A฀full฀bibliography฀can฀be฀found฀in฀ibid.,฀which฀also฀includes฀plans฀illustrating฀changes฀
in฀the฀forum฀area฀over฀time.฀For฀more฀detail,฀see฀Williams’s฀publications฀in฀Hesperia.
34
For฀a฀survey฀of฀Corinth’s฀sanctuaries฀with฀pertinent฀bibliography฀see฀Nancy฀Bookidis,฀
“The฀Sanctuaries฀of฀Corinth,”฀in฀Corinth,฀the฀Centenary,฀1896–1996฀(ed.฀Charles฀K.฀Williams฀
the฀Centenary,฀1896–1996
II฀and฀Nancy฀Bookidis;฀Corinth฀XX;฀Princeton,฀N.J.:฀ASCS,฀2003)฀247–60.

Sanders฀/฀Urban฀Corinth:฀An฀Introduction

11

century,฀a฀small฀house฀with฀a฀well฀was฀constructed฀to฀the฀south฀of฀the฀spring.฀
In฀the฀Lechaion฀Road฀valley,฀the฀Cyclopean฀fountain฀was฀constructed฀and฀
houses฀now฀faced฀the฀road฀towards฀Acrocorinth.฀In฀the฀sixth฀and฀early฀fi฀fth฀
centuries,฀the฀early฀temple฀was฀destroyed฀(ca.฀580฀C.E.)฀to฀be฀replaced฀about฀
forty฀years฀later฀by฀the฀Archaic฀temple฀that฀still฀stands฀on฀the฀site฀today.฀The฀
formal฀approach฀was฀from฀the฀northeast,฀but฀access฀was฀supplemented฀by฀a฀
monumental฀ramp฀leading฀up฀from฀the฀street฀that฀ran฀past฀the฀Sacred฀Spring฀
to฀the฀southeast.฀To฀the฀east฀of฀the฀temple,฀at฀the฀base฀of฀the฀cliff฀separating฀it฀from฀the฀valley,฀a฀small฀stoa฀was฀built.฀A฀cluster฀of฀proto-Geometric฀
graves฀received฀a฀temenos,฀and฀a฀small฀underground฀shrine฀was฀established฀
alongside฀a฀new฀road฀to฀Acrocorinth.
The฀later฀fi฀fth฀and฀early฀fourth฀centuries฀saw฀a฀rapid฀organized฀and฀formalized฀development฀that฀gives฀the฀impression฀of฀a฀thoroughly฀urban฀space.฀
The฀Peirene฀Fountain฀received฀draw฀basins,฀Temple฀A฀was฀constructed฀to฀the฀
north,฀and฀the฀Sacred฀Spring฀was฀further฀developed฀with฀a฀triglyph฀and฀metope฀
wall฀and฀a฀curious฀apsidal฀temple.฀A฀racecourse฀more฀or฀less฀followed฀the฀
southernmost฀Archaic฀road,฀and฀the฀houses฀that฀fl฀anked฀it฀were฀replaced฀by฀
larger฀complexes.฀To฀the฀west,฀the฀house฀of฀a฀merchant฀dealing฀in฀imported฀
fi฀sh฀ fi฀llets฀ was฀ constructed฀ and฀ subsequently฀ removed,฀ and฀ fi฀nally฀ a฀ bath฀
complex฀was฀established.฀The฀main฀changes฀in฀the฀following฀period฀were฀a฀
realignment฀of฀the฀race฀track฀and฀the฀construction฀of฀the฀South฀Stoa.
A฀question฀that฀has฀constantly฀arisen฀is฀the฀location฀of฀the฀agora.฀By฀analogy฀with฀the฀Athenian฀agora,฀many฀would฀point฀to฀the฀racetrack฀as฀evidence฀
that฀the฀Corinthian฀agora฀was฀the฀predecessor฀of฀the฀Roman฀forum.฀In฀the฀
Greek฀period,฀however,฀this฀area฀had฀a฀relatively฀steep฀and฀continuous฀slope฀
from฀the฀Sacred฀Spring฀up฀to฀the฀South฀Stoa,฀interrupted฀only฀by฀the฀racetrack.฀
All฀roads฀found฀to฀date฀channel฀traffi฀c฀in฀a฀general฀northward฀direction,฀while฀
the฀water฀supply฀also฀supplies฀the฀area฀towards฀the฀north.฀Although฀it฀might฀be฀
argued฀that฀the฀lack฀of฀inscriptions฀in฀the฀area฀of฀the฀forum฀is฀to฀be฀expected฀
in฀a฀tyranny,฀and฀later฀an฀oligarchy,฀as฀opposed฀to฀a฀democracy,฀it฀is฀notable฀
that฀what฀inscriptions฀have฀been฀found฀are฀concentrated฀at฀the฀northeast฀side฀
of฀Temple฀Hill.฀A฀better฀hypothesis,฀therefore,฀is฀that฀the฀agora฀was฀located฀
immediately฀to฀the฀north฀of฀the฀excavated฀zone.฀If฀it฀was฀not฀an฀agora,฀then฀
what฀were฀the฀main฀functions฀of฀the฀excavated฀area฀of฀the฀later฀forum฀in฀the฀
Classical฀ period?฀According฀ to฀Williams,฀ it฀ was฀ largely฀ dedicated฀ to฀ cult฀
(especially฀non-Olympian฀cult),฀housing,฀and฀minor฀industry.฀The฀evidence฀
for฀cult฀includes฀fragments฀of฀inscriptions,฀buildings,฀temenoi,฀a฀racetrack,฀
and฀twenty-six฀hero฀reliefs.฀The฀cults฀attested฀tend฀to฀be฀of฀deities฀with฀local฀
rather฀than฀pan-Hellenic฀signifi฀cance฀and฀include฀not฀only฀Hellotis,฀celebrated฀

12

Urban฀Religion฀in฀Roman฀Corinth

with฀a฀torch฀race฀on฀the฀race฀track;฀her฀sister฀Kotyto,฀honored฀perhaps฀in฀
the฀Sacred฀Spring;฀Artemis฀Korinthos;฀and฀Peirene;฀but฀also฀Poseidon฀and฀
Aphrodite,฀and฀perhaps฀Dionysos,฀Hermes,฀and฀the฀nymphs.฀Cults฀of฀heroes฀
include฀Zeuxippus฀and฀various฀unknown฀dead฀ancestors.
In฀ 146฀ B.C.E.,฀ after฀ defeating฀ the฀Achaian฀ League฀ led฀ by฀ the฀ Corinthians฀ at฀ Lefkopetros฀ on฀ the฀ Isthmus,฀ the฀ Roman฀ general฀ Mummius฀ sacked฀
Corinth.฀He฀killed฀the฀male฀population฀and฀sold฀the฀women฀and฀children฀
into฀slavery.฀Thereafter฀Corinth฀was฀no฀longer฀a฀political฀entity฀but฀at฀best฀
an฀almost-deserted฀ghost฀town฀occupied฀by฀a฀small฀non-Corinthian฀population฀engaged฀in฀cultivation฀of฀the฀agricultural฀land.฀Finds฀identifi฀ed฀from฀
this฀ interim฀ period฀ amount฀ to฀ forty-two฀ knidian฀ amphorae฀ stamps,฀ some฀
Megarian฀bowls,฀and฀over฀ninety฀coins.฀The฀prestige฀and฀income฀from฀the฀
Isthmian฀games฀devolved฀to฀Corinth’s฀northwest฀neighbor,฀Sikyon,฀and฀the฀
rich฀agricultural฀land฀was฀auctioned฀off฀as฀ager฀publicus฀every฀two฀years฀in฀
Rome.฀The฀city฀was฀refounded฀in฀44฀B.C.E.฀by฀Julius฀Caesar฀as฀a฀colony฀for฀
16,000฀colonists.฀Its฀territory฀was฀measured฀out฀into฀portions฀for฀the฀colonists฀
and฀the฀city฀was฀redeveloped฀on฀an฀orthogonal฀plan.฀There฀is฀little฀reason฀to฀
believe฀that฀many฀of฀Corinth’s฀religious฀traditions฀survived.฀Nancy฀Bookidis฀
has฀dealt฀briefl฀y฀with฀three฀of฀the฀cults฀that฀were฀resurrected:฀those฀of฀Apollo,฀
Asklepius,฀and฀Demeter.35
In฀the฀early฀Roman฀period,฀the฀forum฀was฀a฀huge฀open฀space฀measuring฀
about฀ 200฀ m฀ east-west฀ and฀ 100฀ m฀ north-south,฀ and฀ taking฀ its฀ orientation฀
from฀the฀surviving฀South฀Stoa,฀which฀defi฀ned฀its฀southern฀edge.฀The฀South฀
Stoa฀was฀modifi฀ed,฀some฀of฀its฀smaller฀spaces฀being฀converted฀into฀larger฀
rooms,฀but฀it฀retained฀its฀colonnade.฀Dominating฀the฀skyline฀to฀the฀north,฀
the฀Archaic฀Temple฀of฀Apollo฀on฀Temple฀Hill฀was฀fl฀anked฀by฀colonnades฀to฀
the฀north฀and฀south.฀The฀colonists฀had฀rotated฀its฀orientation฀by฀180฀degrees฀
to฀face฀an฀approach฀from฀the฀road฀out฀of฀the฀forum฀to฀the฀west.฀Its฀interior฀
colonnade฀was฀removed฀and฀re-erected฀in฀a฀line฀running฀north฀from฀the฀west฀
end฀of฀the฀South฀Stoa฀along฀the฀road฀to฀Acrocorinth.฀Also฀to฀the฀north฀was฀a฀
long฀basilica฀fl฀anking฀the฀Lechaion฀Road฀on฀one฀side฀and฀the฀cliff฀of฀Temple฀
Hill฀on฀the฀other.฀The฀Lechaion฀Road,฀entering฀the฀forum฀from฀the฀north,฀
ascended฀a฀broad฀stairway฀through฀a฀three-bayed฀monumental฀arch.฀East฀of฀
the฀Lechaion฀Road,฀Peirene฀Fountain฀had฀been฀refurbished฀and฀extended.฀
The฀former฀simple฀façade฀of฀the฀draw฀basins฀was฀walled฀off฀with฀a฀series฀
of฀arches.฀A฀rectangular฀two-story฀court฀enclosing฀a฀rectangular฀pool฀was฀
added฀to฀the฀north.

35

See฀her฀essay฀in฀this฀volume฀(pp.฀xxx–xxx).

Sanders฀/฀Urban฀Corinth:฀An฀Introduction

13

On฀the฀east฀side฀of฀the฀forum฀stood฀the฀Julian฀Basilica.฀At฀forum฀level฀
this฀was฀a฀cryptoporticus฀basement.฀The฀fi฀rst฀story,฀approached฀by฀a฀staircase฀of฀fourteen฀steps฀leading฀up฀to฀a฀porch,฀was฀an฀open฀rectangular฀space฀
measuring฀38฀x฀24฀m,฀with฀Corinthian฀columns฀supporting฀a฀clerestory฀and฀
a฀ marble฀ dado.฀ Inside฀ were฀ sculptures฀ of฀ the฀ imperial฀ family,฀ including฀
Augustus฀in฀Pentelic฀marble,฀dressed฀in฀a฀toga฀with฀a฀fold฀draped฀over฀his฀
head,฀and฀portrayed฀engaged฀in฀sacrifi฀ce.฀He฀was฀fl฀anked฀by฀his฀adopted฀sons฀
Caius฀and฀Lucius฀Caesar,฀each฀portrayed฀in฀heroic฀nudity฀with฀a฀chlamys฀
over฀the฀shoulder,฀perhaps฀as฀the฀Dioscuroi.฀Clearly฀this฀building฀had฀some฀
high฀civic฀function.
To฀the฀west฀of฀the฀forum฀stood฀Temple฀E,฀a฀6฀x฀11–column฀peripteral฀
temple฀on฀a฀low฀base฀with฀long฀stoas฀fl฀anking฀it฀to฀the฀north฀and฀south.฀The฀
identifi฀cation฀of฀the฀temple฀has฀been฀hotly฀debated.฀Some฀think฀that฀it฀was฀
dedicated฀to฀Jove฀or฀Zeus฀based฀on฀its฀size฀and฀location,฀while฀others฀regard฀it฀as฀the฀temple฀of฀Octavia.฀In฀front฀of฀the฀temple฀was฀a฀range฀of฀more฀
typically฀Roman฀temples฀and฀monuments.฀Two฀prostyle฀temples,฀F฀and฀G,฀
were฀ dedicated฀ to฀ Venus฀ and฀ to฀ Clarion฀Apollo฀ respectively.฀ Built฀ in฀ the฀
Roman฀style,฀they฀stood฀on฀high฀marble-clad฀podia฀of฀concrete฀and฀rubble฀
that฀were฀approached฀from฀the฀east฀by฀a฀stair.฀To฀the฀north฀was฀a฀fountain฀
house฀dedicated฀to฀Poseidon,฀decorated฀with฀a฀statue฀of฀the฀god฀and฀dolphins,฀
and฀a฀circular฀monument฀decorated฀in฀the฀Corinthian฀order฀and฀dedicated฀
by฀Gnaius฀Cornelius฀Babbius.฀South฀of฀center฀in฀the฀forum฀was฀the฀rostra,฀
considered฀by฀many฀to฀be฀the฀bema฀in฀front฀of฀which฀Paul฀was฀brought฀by฀
the฀elders฀of฀the฀Jewish฀community฀(Acts฀18:12).฀A฀second฀topos฀for฀those฀
following฀the฀travels฀of฀Paul฀in฀Greece฀can฀be฀found฀east฀of฀the฀theater,฀also฀
remodeled฀to฀suit฀Roman฀taste.฀An฀inscription฀found฀there฀reads:฀ERASTUS฀
PRO฀AEDILIT[AT]E฀S(ua)฀P(ecunia)฀STRAVIT฀(“Erastus,฀in฀return฀for฀his฀
aedileship,฀laid฀the฀pavement฀at฀his฀own฀expense”).฀Since฀the฀offi฀ce฀of฀aedile฀
can฀be฀pretty฀much฀equated฀with฀that฀of฀oikonomos,฀it฀is฀thought฀that฀this฀
could฀be฀the฀oikonomos฀Erastus฀whose฀greetings฀Paul฀forwards฀in฀his฀letter฀
to฀the฀Romans฀(16:23).36
A฀hundred฀years฀later,฀the฀plan฀of฀the฀forum฀remained฀much฀the฀same,฀
receiving฀additions฀such฀as฀the฀odeion,฀another฀temple฀at฀the฀west฀end฀of฀
the฀forum,฀shops฀to฀the฀west฀of฀the฀rostra,฀and฀a฀new฀basilica฀south฀of฀the฀
South฀Stoa.
For฀more฀on฀Erastus,฀see฀the฀essays฀by฀Helmut฀Koester฀(pp.฀xxx–xxx),฀Steven฀J.฀Friesen฀(pp.฀xxx–xxx),฀and฀James฀A.฀Walters฀(pp.฀xxx–xxx)฀in฀this฀volume,฀as฀well฀as฀฀Steven฀
J.฀ Friesen,฀ “Poverty฀ in฀ Pauline฀ Studies:฀ Beyond฀ the฀ So-called฀ New฀ Consensus,”฀ JSNT฀ 26฀
(2004)฀323–61.
36

14

Urban฀Religion฀in฀Roman฀Corinth

Finally,฀in฀the฀Late฀Roman฀period฀Corinth฀seems฀to฀have฀been฀radically฀
transformed.฀Earthquakes฀in฀the฀late฀fourth฀century฀C.E.฀and฀a฀social฀call฀by฀
Alaric฀and฀his฀Goths฀seem฀to฀have฀reduced฀the฀city.฀The฀great฀sanctuaries฀of฀
the฀Hellenic฀deities฀Demeter฀and฀Asklepios,฀already฀under฀legislative฀pressure฀
to฀close,฀apparently฀did฀not฀survive.฀Efforts฀were฀made฀to฀refurbish฀the฀area฀
of฀the฀forum,฀however—most฀notably฀by฀reappointing฀Peirene฀Fountain37
and฀the฀west฀shops,฀and฀by฀converting฀the฀central฀shops฀into฀the฀broadest฀
stairway฀in฀the฀Roman฀world.฀In฀the฀early฀fi฀fth฀century,฀a฀city฀wall฀was฀laid฀
out,฀encompassing฀the฀heart฀of฀the฀city.฀Remote-sensing฀survey฀suggests฀that฀
this฀wall฀enclosed฀only฀about฀25%฀of฀the฀area฀hitherto฀envisioned,฀and฀assertions฀about฀the฀relationships฀of฀cemeteries฀and฀churches฀to฀the฀city฀center฀
will฀clearly฀have฀to฀be฀revised.฀The฀sixth฀century฀saw฀the฀construction฀of฀
the฀fi฀rst฀buildings฀to฀be฀dedicated฀to฀Christian฀worship.38฀A฀huge฀church,฀the฀
length฀of฀tw