THE TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING NARRATIVE WRITING:A Case Study at SMPN4 Pekanbaru, Riau Province.

TABLE OF CONTENT

DECLARATION………..i

PREFACE ………..………..………..……...ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT ………...iii

ABSTRACT ………....v

TABLE OF CONTENTS ………..……… vi

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES ………...viii

LIST OF APPENDICES.………..……. …....ix

Chapter I: Introduction 1.1. Background of the Research ………..………….…….……..1

1.2. The significance of the study ……….……… 4

1.3. The Organization of the Thesis ……….……….……….……….... 5

1.4. Methodology ……….6

Chapter II: Literature Review 2.1 The draft of the 2004 English Curriculum ……… ……….. 8

2.2 Competence – Based Curriculum ( curriculum 2004) ………... 9

2.3 The Curriculum cycle of the genre-based approach …..…………..………… 10

2.3.1 Expressing Meanings in the Sentence ………..………….. 15

2.3.2 Expressing meanings in Genres …. ……….……… 19

2.4 The Text of Narrative ……… 21

2.5 Teaching and Learning Activities ………..…………. 27

Chapter III: Research Methodology 3.1. The Objectives of the Study ……… ………. 35

3.2. The Statement of the Problems ……….……….. 35

3.3. Research Design ……...………..………….. 36

3.3.1 Research Setting ………..………..………. 36

3.3.2 Preparation Phase ………..………… 37

3.3.3 Arranging Research Schedule ………..………...……… 39

3.3.4 Data Collection Techniques ………..……… 40

3.3.4.2 Teacher Interview ...………. 41

3.3.4.3 Student Interview ..………..………..………. 42

3.4 Validity and Reliability ………..………. 43

3.4.1 Validity ………..………. 43

3.4.2 Reliability ………..……. 44

3.5 Stages of Research ………..……. 46

3.6 Data Analysis ……… 46

Chapter IV: Research Findings and Discussions 4.1 Data from observation and interview ………. 50

4.1.1 Teaching and learning activities regarding writing narrative text ………50

4.1.2 Students’ opinions and expectations on writing narrative text ………….55

4.2 Discussion ……….. 61

4.2.1 Teaching and learning activities ……….. 61

4.2.2 Students’ opinions and expectations on writing narrative text ……... 66

Chapter V: Conclusion and Suggestions 5.1. Conclusions ………...………. 74

5.2. Suggestions………. 78

BIBLIOGRAPHY.………...………..………. 82

APPENDICES ..……….……… 86

TABLE 2.1. The differences between Spoken and Written ………14

TABLE 3.1. Research schedule for each sessions ………. 39

TABLE 4.1 Summary of Research Questions Findings ……… 73

Figure 2.1 The draft of the 2004 English Curriculum ………….……… 8

Figure 2.2 The Teaching-Learning Cycle ……….………….. 11

Figure 2.3 Narrative Text Type ………... 22

Figure 2.4 Generic Structure of Narrative Text ……….. 23

Figure 3.1 Research Design ………. 38

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1:

Case Study Consent Form ………. 86

Appendix 2:

The Result of Classroom Observation. ………. 87

Appendix 4:

The Result of Interview for Teachers. ………... 99

Appendix 5:

Field notes on teaching writing narrative text. …101

Appendix 6:

Document of Research. ………104

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, I would like to discuss the point aspects related to the background of the research, significance of the study, and the organization of thesis.

1.1 Background of the Research

Changes and innovations in English education in Indonesia has been most likely reflected in the changes of curriculum. Suyanto (2001) argues that the curriculum changes are driven by (i) some innovation in theories about the teaching of English and (ii) the failures of implementing one after another curriculum. One of the aspects of the curriculum that is subjected to change is teaching approach.

As an illustration, in the 1994 curriculum, it was stated that the students were required to be able to communicate in English using the four English language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing). The teaching approach to be adopted was “the meaningful approach”, which was basically the communicative approach. The teachers were expected to integrate the four language skills, the grammar, and the vocabulary creatively, so that the teaching objectives could be reached in the time available.

Based on the government’s review and feedback from the practitioners and scholars, the 1994 curriculum was changed. The change was also motivated by the influence of political movements, one of which was the movement towards autonomous provision for the provinces and regions. The new curriculum had to cater for, and be suitable for, the needs of each province and region and, at the same time, it also had a national standard. Because of that, the new 2004 curriculum was designed on the basis of

some basic competencies the students had to master. The new curriculum sought to fill what was lacking in the previous ones. In the new curriculum it was stated that the graduates were expected to have both a language competency and a general competency. For the language competency, the students were expected to be able to understand English texts, to communicate in English and to use English for enjoyment (Pusat Kurikulum-Balitbang Departement Pendidikan Nasional, 2001). In the new curriculum, in accordance with the underlying language principles and the description of teaching and learning activities, even though it is not explicitly stated, a genre-based approach is adopted.

English teachers are supposed to be able to teach their students both language components and language skills. One of the language skills they are supposed to teach is writing skill. Despite the emphasis of teaching on reading comprehension and the limited time provided for writing activities, teachers should provide students with opportunities to develop their writing skill.

Writing makes a special contribution to the way people think. A piece of writing composes meanings. Alwasilah (2001: 15) in his longitudinal study of writing process involving 29 graduate students revealed that 62.1 percent of the respondents believe that Indonesian education-from elementary to college-has failed to provide them with writing skills. Facts and ideas are put to make something new, whether in a letter home, in a college essay, or in a report at work. In writing, meaning is created in which sentences have special relationships to each other. Some sentences are general and some specific; some expand a point and others qualify it; some define and others illustrate (Axelrod,1988:2).

Writing makes another important contribution to learning. Writing helps us to find and establish our own network of information and ideas, as it is always a composing of new meaning. It allows us to bring together and connect new and old ideas. Writing enables us to clarify and deepen our understanding of a new concept and to find ways to relate it to other ideas within a discipline. Thus, writing test, clarifies, and extends understanding (Axelrod,1988:2). Learning to write is like learning to speak, involves the gradual mastery of a complex series of language conventions for constructing meanings at different levels of organizations for constructing meanings at different levels of organizations, including letter formation, spelling, syntax, discourse and genre (Fox, 1993). He further states that the learner has to learn how to use, control, and understand the writing process across a wide series of genres and contexts.

There are various reasons for significant writing. Firstly, a wonderful idea which is not expressed clearly and logically, will not have benefit to anyone. Secondly, the act of writing is a thinking and learning act. Learning to write means learning to think. Thirdly, educated people need writing ability. Finally, from psycholinguistics viewpoint, low reading interest among people at all age levels and educational levels may result from the fact that writings-books, literature and other references-are not interesting, out of readers’ interest, and do not attract readers to read (Rasyid,1999:2). Those writings are poorly written and badly organized.

One of the most challenging tasks English teachers face nowadays is making their students write different genres as required by the new competence-based curriculum (CBC). To carry out this task, teachers need to have clear ideas regarding what micro and macro skills students need to develop so that they can develop essays of different types.

This means that writing activities are no longer geared around what to write (topics), but how to write (skills of writing). This is by no means saying that topics are not important; they are still important, but they are used as a means of acquiring the writing skills. Topics are always needed, but high school students do not need to address topics that are not very relevant to their immediate needs. With limited time allotment, teachers need to focus on the key issue, that is, teach and show students how to write.

It is important to note that at SMP (Junior High School) level students are not expected to write in written style of English. For example, if they can write a narrative text using “spoken English written down”, that would be acceptable as long as they can produce simple grammatical sentences, well organized text or create a unified whole.

1.2 The significance of the Study

This study provided certain results about the effectiveness of learning in the development of writing skill. The research findings intended to be highly valuable for English learners, teachers, practitioners, and curriculum planners. Generally, the study is to introduce and familiarize teaching narrative writing.

For English curriculum planners, the research findings may be used as consideration in developing curriculum which includes teaching method. It accordingly can enrich the English learning teaching method to come to the most effective and efficient teaching method.

For English teachers, the study can also give a significant contribution towards the writer’s institution. The study may improve the teaching and learning process of writing as a complex skill in which other skills involving.

For students, as English learners, this study can prove them that collaborative is more effective in solving some learning problems. It may also develop their social interdependence as stated by Deutsch (1949); Johnson & Johnson, 1989 cited in Johnson & Johnson, 2000. they state that social interdependence exists when individuals share common goals and each individual’s outcomes are affected by the actions of the others.

The findings of the study expected to supply the readers with a significant difference in the achievement of writing, especially in the five stages of narrative, they are (1) Orientation, (2) Complication, (3) Evaluation, (4) Resolution, and (5) Reorientation or Coda the ideas into good paragraphs

The techniques and activities used by the English teachers from this study are also expected to enrich the students’ motivation in learning English narrative writing. Briefly, this investigation may enlarge the teachers’ view regarding the current issues, especially on the techniques of teaching narrative writing.

1.3. The Organization of Thesis

The subsequent chapters will be organized as follows. Chapter II presents my own perspective on relevant literature comprising the theories, which have given shape to this study. The theories are to do with values of narrative writing and approach to teaching Chapter III describes the research methodology and design of the study. The research methodology and design of the study. The research methodology comprises the participants, setting, data collection technique, data analysis, and narrative text as a tool for analyzing students’ texts. Chapter IV will delineate the research findings concerning the participants’ strategies of developing skill as well as in narrative writing, procedures

taken in the process of data collection as well as analyses made for data collected, particularly from observation and interview. Finally, the thesis will be concluded in chapter V, elicited from the discussions in chapter IV. In this chapter, the writer will also declare the limitations of the study and be closed with the recommendation for further research.

1.4 Methodology

This study uses descriptive method. There are two techniques of data collection that are used observation and interview. Regarding the function of observation and interview, they were used to gather information relevant to answer the research questions including the kinds of teaching and learning activities.

I used field notes and during the observation I sat next to the teachers in the classrooms to observe the teaching learning activities. Observation in this study is intended to dig the whole data needed. It is the main technique used by researcher in this study. To support data obtained through the observation, I used the research instruments. The main instrument of this research was the researcher himself. I tried to be more sensitive, responsive, and interactive to my research sites in order to gain data.

Nevertheless, I also used a video camera to help me gain more accurate data. The videotaping took place at all of activities, more specifically, during the teaching and learning activities. Through videotaping, I attained clearer conversation to the teachers and captured the respondents’ facial expressions. By video recording, I knew whether they enjoyed the activities or not. Since this was a qualitative study, I needed very detailed information that mostly occurred in the class. Video taping served two different

purposes in this study: ensuring the descriptive validity of my observations, and stimulating recall and reflection as a component of the interviews with teachers and students. Related to this, Maxwell also mentions that observation enables you to draw inferences about someone’s meaning and perspective that you couldn’t obtain by relying exclusively on interview data.

For more detail information and to cross-check information found in observation, I felt that I needed to interview each respondent. I provided lists of questions before the interview session began. The interviews were carried out after the class. Therefore, I had to make an appointment to the respondents so they could spare their time with me. In interviewing the teachers, I interviewed two English teachers. I interviewed the teachers both informally after teaching learning activities and formally at the end of the period. The teachers were interviewed formally and informally and the formal interview was transcribed. The interviews occurred throughout the process as well as after the activity of teaching and learning. In general, the interview questions were about the issues of giving feedback/conferencing at the teaching and learning activity.

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter discusses aspects to do with the methodology of the study. Besides, it includes the research questions, the objectives of the study.

3.1. The Objectives of the Study

In connection with the statement of the problems below, this study was investigated the kinds of teaching and learning activities take place in writing narrative text. The main objective of this research attempted to ascertain the effect of teaching narrative writing; the effect of teaching method towards students’ writing achievement in staging the writing narratives, they are: Orientation, complication, evaluation, resolution, reorientation or coda.

3.2. The Statement of the Problems

To clarify the problems that investigated based on the description mentioned in the background, some research questions can be formulated as follows. The main problem of the research was whether developing writing skill through narrative writing improves students’ writing skills in writing text narrative. This study was conducted to address the following major questions:

1. What kinds of teaching and learning activities take place in writing narrative text?

3.3. Research design

This study was a case study attempting to understand the subjects’ perception on a certain issue. The design of the study will be qualitative since qualitative approach provides an insight into what is happening and why it happens. It will be concerned more with process of the outcome.

3.3.1 Research setting

This research would be conducted at SMP N 4 Pekanbaru, one of the junior high school in Pekanbaru regency, Riau Province. This school is chosen for some reasons. It is also considered one of the best junior high schools in Pekanbaru, which is proven by its passing grade which is the first highest in Pekanbaru. This result’s in the school’s popularity among students and parents. Furthermore, the researcher has been teaching at this school for quite a long time so it is easy for him to get access to the observation as well as to interview both teachers and students.

The population of the study was the third grade students of SMP Negeri 4 Pekanbaru. The samples were five students of 9.1 and 9.9. This school is the school where the researcher is teaching. It implies that regarding relationships between researcher and participants of the study that have been built so far, the research activities will be very possible to be conducted in this place. Therefore, all data needed for the study will be possibly collected, including the sincerity of information given by the participants. This motive, all at once, will minimize the significance of data collected for the study.

3.3.2 Preparation phase

In order to know what students write, we also need to know what they do when they write and how they can be helped to do it better. This involves focusing research more on the writers themselves than on their products. Obviously this type of research requires a different set of questions and method and draws on a different approach to research.

Since the study investigates the process of narrative writing, it uses a qualitative method, which is appropriate in understanding process by which events and actions take place (Maxwell, 1996, p.19). This is a case study as it is an examination of a specific phenomenon such as a process. Merriam (1988, p.16) states that a qualitative case study is an intensive, holistic description and analysis of a single instance, phenomenon. Specifically, she conceptualizes the case study as a process which tries to describe and analyze some entity in qualitative, complex and comprehensive terms not infrequently as it unfolds over a period of time.

The study of narrative writing process involves observation of writers at work and systematic procedures for collecting and analyzing their perceptions of what they are doing. I favored these strategies as a way of revealing the hidden process of narrative writing. I used detailed ethnographic observations of behaviors together with interviews to provide a fuller picture of what will be happening, although questionnaires will also be used to collect this kind of data. Having the research design is approved and got recommendation from the supervisors, then he continues to have field research with any completeness of instruments that conducted. The nature of research will be drawn and summarized in the following design:

Figure 3.1 : Research Design

Background

Theory _{Problem Fact}

How students write a narrative text

Research Questions

• Validity • Reliability

Data Collection

• Observations • Interview

Data Analysis Finding & Discussions

Conclusions & Suggestions

3.3.3 Arranging Research Schedule

Basically, arranging research schedule in this study is in accordance with the student’s schedule in teaching-learning activity. This study conducted from November 2006 up to March 2007 at two classes. After getting the consultation with English teacher at Junior High School, then the research schedule can be seen on the table.

Table 3.1 : Research schedule for each sessions

Session Class Date Time Theme/sub-theme

1st 9.1

9.9

Nov 9th, 2006 Nov 10th, 2006

10:00-11:20 07:00-08:20

Recreation / On the Beach Recreation / On the Beach

2nd 9.1

9.9

Feb 5th, 2007 Feb 6th, 2007

08:20-09:40 08:20-09:40

Recreation / On the Beach Recreation / On the Beach

3rd 9.1

9.9

Feb 8th, 2007 Feb 9th, 2007

07.00-09:00 10:00-11.20

Recreation / On the Beach Recreation / On the Beach

4th 9.1

9.9

Feb 14th, 2007 Feb 14th, 2007

07.00-09.00 09.20-10.40

Recreation / On the Beach Recreation / On the Beach

5th 9.1

9.9

Feb 15th, 2007 Feb 16th, 2007

07.00-09.00 09.20-10.40

Entertainment / Dance Entertainment / Dance 6th

9.1 9.9

Feb 20th, 2007 Feb 20th, 2007

10:00-11:20 07:00-08:20

Entertainment / Dance Entertainment / Dance 7th

9.1 9.9

Feb 26th, 2007 Feb 27th, 2007

08:20-09:40 08:20-09:40

Entertainment / Dance Entertainment / Dance 8th

9.1 9.9

Feb 28th, 2007 Feb 28th, 2007

07.00-09:00 10:00-11.20

Entertainment / Dance Entertainment / Dance 9th

9.1 9.9

March 2nd, 2007 March 2nd, 2007

07.00-09.00 09.20-10.40

Entertainment / Dance Entertainment / Dance 10th

9.1 9.9

March 2nd, 2007 March 2nd, 2007

07.00-09.00 09.20-10.40

Evaluation Evaluation

3.3.4 Data Collection Techniques

This study uses descriptive method. There are two techniques of data collection that are used observation and interview.

3.3.4.1 Classroom Observation

The observation was conducted for the whole term in two classes at SMP Negeri

4 Pekanbaru. Both of them began on November 12th 2006 and finished on March3rd 2007

and the observations were conducted twenty times. The first class studying hour was four hours. The second class began on November 12th 2007 and ended on March 2nd 2007. The observations were conducted twenty times, and the studying hour was two hours.

I also used field notes and during the observation I sat next to the teachers in the classrooms to observe the teaching learning activities. At the first class, I only wrote memos at the first and second class. It was because I was fully occupied in operating the camera.

Observation in this study is intended to dig the whole data needed. It is the main technique used by researcher in this study. To support data obtained through the observation, then he used the research instruments. The main instrument of this research was the researcher himself. Guba and Lincoln (1981: 128-150 cited in Moleong, 2004: 121-123) elaborate some characteristics of human beings. They mention that human beings have these characteristics: being responsive to the surroundings, being easily adapted to the new surroundings, relying on the expanded knowledge, quickly processing the data, taking chances to clarify phenomenon, and taking chances to respond to some

idiosyncratic phenomenon. Therefore, I tried to be more sensitive, responsive, and interactive to my research sites in order to gain data.

Nevertheless, I also used a video camera to help me gain more accurate data. The videotaping took place at all of activities, more specifically, during the teaching and learning activities. Through videotaping, I attained clearer conversation to the teachers and captured the respondents’ facial expressions. By video recording, I knew whether they enjoyed the activities or not. Since this was a qualitative study, I needed very detailed information that mostly occurred in the class. Video taping served two different purposes in this study: ensuring the descriptive validity of my observations, and stimulating recall and reflection as a component of the interviews with teachers and students. Related to this, Maxwell also mentions that observation enables you to draw inferences about someone’s meaning and perspective that you couldn’t obtain by relying exclusively on interview data.

3.3.4.2 Teacher Interview

Regarding the function of interview, it was used to gather information relevant to answer the research question number one including the kinds of teaching and learning activities towards writing (particularly, a Narrative Text), description of their classroom activities, their knowledge about writing narrative text covering generic structure.

For more detail information and to cross-check information found in observation, I felt that I needed to interview each respondent. I provided lists of questions before the interview session began. The interviews were carried out after the class.

Therefore, I had to make an appointment to the respondents so they could spare their time with me.

In interviewing the teachers, I interviewed two English teachers. I interviewed the teachers both informally after teaching learning activities and formally at the end of the period. The teachers were interviewed formally and informally and the formal interview was transcribed. The interviews occurred throughout the process as well as after the activity of teaching and learning. In general, the interview questions were about the issues of giving feedback/conferencing at the teaching and learning activity.

The aims of interview for the teachers were:

To obtain information about their experiences, opinions, goal expectations, and knowledge about teaching writing narrative texts.

To obtain information about teachers’ efforts in improving students’ writing narrative texts.

To allow them to describe their teaching procedures in writing narrative texts.

Based on the research question number 2, data collection process were used interview. They were:

3.3.4.3 Student Interview

Interview was used to answer the research question number two including the students’ opinions and expectations on writing narrative text. I interviewed five students. The student interviews began with an open-ended question and the subsequent questions

were conversational in an attempt to get the interviewee to discuss further details he/she mentioned in an answer.

In interviewing the students, I used Indonesian. I used Indonesian language since when I used English for interviewing the students, they had difficulties in answering my questions and expressing their feelings so that I used Indonesian because I did not want the students have difficulty in answering my questions, expressing their feeling, and transferring the language and I also wanted to get the accurate data from the students.

3.4 Validity and Reliability 3.4.1. Validity

Merriam states, “validity deals with the question of how one’s finding match reality. Do the findings capture what is really there? Are investigators observing or measuring what they think they are measuring?” {Merriam, 1988: 166}. She also adds there are some strategies to ensure the validity of the investigation. Such as triangulation, member checks, long term observation, providing a rich, thick description. To ensure the validity of this study, I used some strategies as follows:

“Using multiple methods of gathering data and multiple sources of data to confirm the emerging findings” {Merriam, 1988: 168). To ensure the validity of this research, I applied two methods of collecting data : Observation and interview. Observation and interview were used to find out teaching writing

narrative texts activities in the classroom or what teacher and students did in the class. Interview was used to gain about students’ opinions and expectations.

Long-term observation

At the research site – gathering data over a period of time in order to increase the validity of the finding. Merriam (1988: 168) states “ by persistently observing of the same phenomenon over a period of time, the researcher can ensure the research findings to have increased validity”. I have observed teaching writing narrative texts around twenty times continuously from one meeting to another for one semester to observe what actually the teachers and students did in writing classroom.

3.4.2. Reliability

According to Merriam (1988: 70), reliability refers to the extent to which one’s findings can be replicated. In other words, if the study is repeated will it yield the same results?

To ensure the reliability of this study, I used some techniques as follows:

•••• The investigator’s position

Merriam (1988: 172) states that the investigator should explain the assumptions and theory behind the study, his or her position vis-à-vis the

group being studied to ensure the reliability. In order to ensure the reliability of this study, I have explained and described my position toward the group being studied and the theory behind the study in the previous chapter.

•••• Audit trail

Guba and Licoln (1981 cited in Merriam, 1988) state just as an auditor authenticates the accounts of a business, independent judges can authenticate the findings of a study by following the trail of the researcher, in order for an audit to take place, the investigator must describe in detail how data were collected, how categories were derived, and how decisions were made throughout the inquiry. Essentially, researcher should present their methods in such detail “that other researchers can use the original report as an operating manual by which to replicate the study” (Goetz and LeCompte, 1984: 216 cited in Merriem, 1988: 174). Furthermore, to ensure an audit to take place I tried to describe in detail what the methods are, how the data are collected, how categories are derived, and how decisions are made in thick description of this study.

3.5 Stages of Research

The stages of research was discussed about the preliminary research and phase of preparation. The purpose of preliminary study here is to see the nature of school’s condition directly that related to the investigated problems in general. Besides, this preliminary study is intended to get the nature of (1) teaching activities in the classroom, especially on the teaching of narrative writing, (2) class condition such as facility, language laboratory, and the like; and (3) the student’s responses to the teaching narrative writing.

3.6 Data Analysis

The data obtained analyzed qualitatively. It means that the data are recorded, summarized, and interpreted accordingly. In addition, the interpretation can be also described in the numbers and then discussed accordingly.

In this study, I applied inductive analytical approach where I presented facts or general statements from the obtained data to come to the conclusion. I used some techniques for analyzing data.

In this study, I applied inductive analytical approach. Howard Becker (1958) mentions that in analytic induction the data analysis begins while data is being gathered. The analyses are tentative and provisional throughout the study and only become comprehensive once the data is completely collected. Therefore, in this research, I began by presenting facts or general statements from the obtained data to the conclusion. The techniques for analyzing the data are as follows;

First of all, I observed the activities in the classroom, especially, the teaching and learning activities by using a digital camera, tape and if possible I wrote some field notes. Then, I watched and listened to the tapes repeatedly, and transcribed them. Then, I distributed the interview sheet to the respondents. After distributing the interview sheets, I interviewed them to cross-check their consistency in answering the questions.

Secondly, I read the transcribed process, interview transcripts, field notes, and other documents. The data were coded and categorized in general such as; Observation data (Obs) and Interview data (I)

Data collection and data analysis are two activities but done simultaneously in a qualitative research (Merriam, 1998: 150). The process of analysis is conducted simultnously with ongoing activities related to the teaching and writing processes. First, this study extracts the information from the data collected through the interview and observation process. The observation process also takes part in supplying the information to either students’ knowledge and ways of developing skill of writing a narrative text. According to Glesne and Peshkin (1992:127):

Data analysis involves organizing what you have seen, heard, and read so that you can make sense of what you have learned. Working with the data, you create explanations, pose hypotheses, develop theories, and link your story to other story. To do so, you must categorize, synthesize, search for patterns, and interpret the data you have collected.

In this study, I applied inductive analytical approach where I presented facts or general statements from the obtained data to come to the conclusion. I used some techniques for analyzing data. Firstly, I interviewed two English teacher and five students

to transcription and then I transcribed them. Secondly, I read the interview transcripts and observational notes. Thirdly, I used classroom observation. Then, I observed the process of teaching and learning activities in the classroom. I made notes or memos on what I saw, heard, and read in my data and develop ideas about categories and relationship. Related to that Maxwell (1996: 78) suggests as follows say, “You should regularly write memos while you are doing data analysis; memos not only capture your analytic thinking about your data, they facilitate such thinking, stimulating analytic insights”.

Meanwhile Glesne and Peshkin (1992: 128) state by writing memos to yourself all keeping a reflective field log, you develop your thoughts; by getting your thoughts down as they occur, no matter how preliminary or in what form, you begin the analysis process.

Fourtly, I used categorizingstrategy that involved codingand sortingthe data. Related to coding, Maxwell (1996: 78) states the goal of coding is to fracture the data and rearrange it into categories that facilitate the comparison of data within and between these categories. After coding and categorizing the data, I also sorted or reduced the data that were not necessary. The first step, the data were coded and categorized in general such as; Observation data (Obs) and Interview data (I).

I read the transcribed the process, interview transcripts, field notes, and other documents. Finally, I categorized and coded the data. The coding and categorization are as follows.

The second step, the data were categorized into two main categories and then the data were sub categorized as follows:

• Category # 1 : writing narrative text

a. Type of narrative text

b. Teaching and learning activities

c. Teaching material

d. Learning Task

• Category # 2 : Students’ opinions and expectations

a. On writing narrative text

b. On teaching and learning activities

c. On group work

d. On assignment

e. On their writing skills improvement

Finally, the data were displayed in thick description of the study. Related to data displays, Maxwell states “displays constitute an additional analytic strategy; these include matrices or tables, networks, and various other forms’. Meanwhile, Glesne & Peshkin (1992: 137) say, “data display is another ongoing feature of qualitative inquiry that can be a part of developing the problem statement, data collection, analysis, and final presentation of the study”.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

This chapter consists of two parts, the conclusion of the present study and suggestions both for further researches and practitioners. The conclusions of the research conducted based on the research questions as raised and explained in the third chapter. Second, the suggestions addressed to the researchers who are interested in doing further research on narrative writing, especially the techniques of teaching narrative writing, and for those who are interested in the application of the findings in teaching narrative writing.

5.1 Conclusions

1. In line with the major problems in Chapter III, to clarify the problems that investigated based on the description mentioned in the background, some research questions can be formulated as follows. The main problem of the research would be whether developing writing skill through narrative writing improves students’ writing skills in writing the text of narrative. What are the teaching and learning activities in writing a narrative text? What are the students’ opinions and expectations on writing narrative text?

2. To introduce the teaching and learning activities, a teacher can make the class to jointly construct an essay on the white board. The teacher can start with the first sentence, and then let the students develop the sentence step by step, for example, to create an orientation paragraph for the narrative genre they are writing. When this is done several times, the students made aware that once they have a bit of information,

they can add more bits of information, and they can never stop writing. In short, teachers can actually help build the micro competence in writing a paragraph. In this way, teachers help the students’ self confidence and independence in writing narrative text with different purposes.

3. To develop students’ competence in writing genres, there are at least three key issues teachers need to address. The first issue is communicative purpose. Every time a student starts to write, s/he needs to be clear about why s/he writes. For example, s/he writes in order to entertain, to tell past events, to describe something and so on. Once the communicative purpose is determined, a student needs to deal with the second issue, that is, how to achieve the purpose. To have good knowledge of how successful writers achieve the same or similar communicative purpose, a student needs to have some ideas about some elements that characterize a particular genre and how those elements are organized. The third issue is identifying what sentence patterns, tenses, and other features that are often used in a particular genre. Armed with this knowledge, a teacher can plan activities such as group discussions, reading model passages, discussing sentence patterns including the tenses, all of which are geared around writing a genre.

4. If, for example, a student wants to write a narrative text, s/he needs to understand that the communicative purpose of a narrative genre is to entertain the readers. In order to entertain the readers, a narrative genre needs to have at least three elements:

orientation, complication, and resolution. Linguistically, a narrative is often told in the past tense.

4 One of the most challenging tasks English teachers face nowadays is making their students write different genres as required by the new competence-based curriculum (CBC). To carry out this task, teachers need to have clear ideas regarding what micro and macro skills students need to develop so that they can develop essays of different types. This means that writing activities are no longer geared around what to write (topics), but how to write (skills of writing). This is by no means saying that topics are not important; they are still important, but they are used as a means of acquiring the writing skills. Topics are always needed, but high school students do not need to address topics that are not very relevant to their immediate needs. With limited time allotment, teachers need to focus on the key issue, that is, teach and show students how to write.

6. It is important to note that at SMP (Junior High School) level students are not expected to write in written style of English. For example, if they can write a narrative text, that would be acceptable as long as they can produce simple grammatical sentences, well organized text or create a unified whole. Students are also expected to learn how to produce essays using written style of English. To achieve this goal, it is important that teachers know what micro skills are involved in writing English texts using written English style. However, many teachers think that writing is complicated and they do not know where to start. A sensible way to start would be examining the differences between spoken and written language.

7. The models of genre approaches is the Teaching Cycle or Wheel model. There are some variations of this teaching cycle model. Despite the variations, this wheel model

consists of three main stages that include modeling, joint construction and independent construction.

8. At the first stage, modeling refers to a stage where the genre in question is presented and analysed by the teacher with the students in various activities. Modeling is an important aspect of the genre approach. At this stage the social purpose, text structure and language features of genre are investigated. The modeling stage focused on two main aspects, building the students’ background knowledge about the topic and introducing the students to a model of genre to be learned.

9. The students were introduced to model text (s) of a genre the students were supposed to learn. Through this way the students learned the concept of genre and the significant features of the genre. Reading the model text, the students investigated the social purpose, the schematic structure and language features of the genre. In the teaching cycle of the genre-based approach, this stage comes before the joint construction. Teachers, however, may also came back to modeling at any stage if it is necessary as the stages of a teaching cycle were not necessarily fix in sequence. 10.The techniques apply by an English teacher in teaching narrative writing, I can infer

that the respondent teacher made efforts to facilitate and help the students’ learning. The teachers told the students to find the sources of data from various information and the teachers themselves also tried to become one of the data sources. As a facilitator, the teacher tried to make learning easier for students, help them clear away roadblocks, to find shortcuts and to negotiate rough terrain. Besides as facilitators, those teachers also played a role as a tutor. It can be seen that teaching writing through the text of narrative, the respondent teachers mostly played a role as tutor

who works with students individually or in small-groups, guide those students on their works and they also make learning easier for students such as helping students face stumbling blocks, find shortcuts and negotiate rough terrain (Harmer, 2002: 57-63). In tutoring, those respondent teachers also provide feedbacks on the students’ writing narrative text.

11.Writing Narrative text is not a linear but a recursive process. It rarely proceeds neatly from one phase to the next. Rather, the phases frequently overlap, making the process often appear messy. The students, for example, revise what they have written as soon as the word or the sentence appears on the page, they sometimes make outline after they have finished their first or second drafts of the narrative text or they free write all the time. Each student participates in the writing narrative process in a different way, at a different pace, and with a different result.

12.All students grapple with many of the same basic problems, they are unable to focus, unable to express and develop ideas, unable to write the text, and so forth. They have experienced it at one time or another, the dreaded writer’s block. It is that terrible menacing mental block that prevents them from writing. The most common problems in this study are procedural, physical, and psychological problems. Whereas magnitude and unrealistic attitude shared by particular students, in addition, time management and interruption tended to be individual. Fortunately, they can cope with their problems by using helpful strategies for them.

5.2 Suggestions

1. Teachers must consider ways of engaging student writers by providing relevant topics or let the students select their own topic, clear goals and strategies to make writing

task manageable. Successful writing instruction requires an awareness of the importance of cognitive and motivational factors, which means teachers should provide relevant topics, encourage cooperation with peers in planning and writing tasks, and incorporate group research activities of various kinds. A workshop environment which provides peer support and opportunities for students to talk about their writing-in-progress with teachers, attentive readers through writing conferences is regarded as crucial to writing development.

2. Knowing more about the writing process will not guarantee that students will become

a better writer. They must after all, practice writing in order to improve. Still, they greatly increase their chances of success if they follow steps that good writers agree are important parts of the process. However, the most important thing is that the students should become independent learners as they have learned phases in writing instruction as a process. The instruction becomes individualized as students focus on their own interests, perceptions, and background experiences.

3. More recently, teachers of composition have come to believe that students should learn more about the process of writing, and that courses should teach them how to compose papers successfully, rather than merely how to recognize good writing. The teacher’s role should shift from whole class instructor to a facilitator and promoter of writing. In addition, teachers need to do more than simply take students through a process of producing a piece of writing. They also need to give their full attention to them, to show them how to plan a piece of writing through prewriting activities, how to draft and revise, and how to read their writing.

4. Students have problems related to procedure—what to write and how to write it. The former related to content that should they write, whereas the latter related to procedures or ways that are applied in the process of narrative writing stages. Understanding the writing problems is important for teachers in order to help students cope with their problems. In relation to the problems mentioned above, it is assumed that teachers should provide opportunities for students to improve their writing skills. They need to give students more of everything—more time; more opportunity to talk, listen, read, and write; more instruction and practice in the skills students will use most frequently in academic writing.

5. One of the popular models of genre approaches is the Curriculum Cycle or Wheel model. There are some variations of this curriculum cycle model (e.g Callaghan and Rothery 1989; Hammond 1990; and Callaghan, Knapp, and Noble 1993). Despite the variations, this wheel model consists of three main stages that include modeling, joint construction and independent construction.

6. At the first stage, modeling, refers to a stage where the genre in question is presented and analysed by the teacher with the students in various activities. Modeling is an important aspect of the genre approach. At this stage the social purpose, text structure and language features of genre are investigated (Callaghan, Knapp, and Noble, 1993). The modelling stage focused on two main aspects, building the students’ background knowledge about the topic and introducing the students to a model of genre to be learned (Feez and Joyce, 1998; Hammond, 1990; Paltridge 2001).

7. The students are introduced to model text (s) of a genre the students are supposed to learn. Through this way the students learn the concept of genre and the significant

features of the genre. Reading the model text, the students investigate the social purpose, the schematic structure and language features of the genre (Callaghan et al, in Cope and Kalantzis, 1993; Christie, 1992; Gibbons, 2002; Martin, 1999). In the curriculum cycle of the genre-based approach, this stage comes before the joint construction. According to Hammond in Paltridge (2001), teachers, however, may also come back to modelling at any stage if it is necessary as the stages of a curriculum cycle are not necessarily fix in sequence.

8. Regarding writing as a process, English teachers and the participants, particularly those involved in this research should apply many strategies which are more appeal and meaningful to enhance the students’ competence in writing a narrative text. Based on the data of this research, the researcher believes that Genre-Based Approach (GBA) is still possible to be adopted in teaching English for junior high schools, particularly in teaching writing, such as by implementing the teaching cycles: the Building of the Field, the Deconstruction, the Joint and the Independent construction of the text. Although are they not the only most effective ways to choose, but at least those teaching cycles can lead to systematic steps. In addition, the more systematic the teaching and learning processes are done, the researcher believes the more satisfactory the results from them will be gained.

9. Finally, The researcher invites all English teachers, academic practices, researchers, and all educational sympathizers to conduct similar research to enhance the quality of the findings in this research. For the readers’ positive responses, critiques to this research, the researcher attends a warmly thank.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Agustien, Helena I. 2006. Genre-Based Approach and the 2004 English Curriculum. A plenary paper presented in National Seminar at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia. Bandung.

Alwasilah, A. Chaedar. 2001. Language, culture, and education: a portrait of

contemporary Indonesia. Bandung: Andira.

Alwasilah, A Chaedar. 2002. Pokoknya Kualitatif. Jakarta, Bandung: PT Kiblat Buku Utama.

Alwasilah, A. Chaedar and Alwasilah, Senny Suzanna. 2005. Pokoknya Menulis. Bandung 40264. PT Kiblat Buku Utama.

Axelrod, Rise B. and Charles R. Cooper. 1988. The St. Marthin’s Guide to writing. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Axelrod, Rise B. and Charles R. Cooper. 1998. The St. Marthin’s Guide to writing. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Bruner, J. S. 1986. Actual minds, possible worlds, Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press.

Callaghan, M. 1989. A Brief Introduction to Genre. Erskineville, NSW: Metropolitan East Disadvantaged School’s Program.

Callaghan, M and Rothery, G. 1993. The Power of Literacy. Erskineville, NSW: Metropolitan East Disadvantaged School’s Program.

Callaghan, M. P. Knapp., and G. Noble. (1993). Genre in Practice. In B. Cope and M. Kalantzis (Eds.), The Powers of Literacy: A Genre Approach to Teaching Writing, pp. 179- 202. London: The Falmer Press.

Christie, F. (1992). Preparation of Teachers for Teaching English Literacy: What Constitutes Essential Knowledge? In N. Bird and J. Harris (Eds.), Quilt and Quill: Achieving and Maintaining Quality in Language Teaching and Learning, pp.222-239. Hongkong: Institute of Language in Education.

Cope, Bill and Kalantzis, Mary. 1993. The Power of Literacy: A Genre Approach to Teaching Writing. London, Washington, DC: The Falmer Press.

Departemen Pendidikan Nasional Republik Indonesia. (2001). Program Pembangunan

Nasional (PROPENAS):Pembangunan Pendidikan. Retrieved 22 May, 2001 from http:// www. pdk. go.id/ program.htm.

Eggins, Suzanne. (1994). An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics. London and New York: Continum.

Emilia, Emi. 2006. Pengajaran Ketrampilan Berfikir Kritis. Presented in Forum Ilmiah II: Pemikiran-pemikiran Inovatif dalam Kajian Bahasa, Sastra, Seni, dan Pembelajarannya. Bandung: Fakultas Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni. Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia.

Fairclough, Norman. 2003. Analysing Discourse: Textual analysis for social research. London and New York: Routledge.

Feez. S. and Joyce. H. 1988. “Effective Writing Conference: Teaching and Learning, One to One. [Online] Available at:

http://www.umkc.edu/cad/nad/nadedocs/94conpap/mkcpap94.htm

Feez, Susan. and Joyce, Helen. (1998). Text-Based Syllabus Design. Sydney: National Center for English Language Teaching.

Feez, Susan and Joyce, Helen. 1998. Writing Skills: Narrative & Non-Fiction Text Types. Australia: Phoenix Education Pty Ltd.

Fox, Richard. 1993. Teachers Taking about Writing at Key Stage 2. Reading Journal ed. July 1993. School of Education. University of Exerter, EXI.

Gardener, Sue. 1995. “Learning to Write as an Adult”. In DEAKIN University for ELL626. 1995. Literacies and Education: Writing. Australia: Deakin University. Gerot and Wignel. 1994. Making Sense of Functional Grammar. Australia: Gerd Stabler,

Antipodean educational Enterprises (AEE).

Gibson, Joanna. 2002. Perspectives: Case studies for readers and writers. New York: Longman.

Glesne, Corrine and Peshkin, Alan. 1992. Becoming Qualitative Research: An

Introduction. New York: Longman Publishing Group.

Goetz, Preissle Judith and Lecompte, Diane Margaret. 1984. Ethnography and

Qualitative Design in Educational Research. Orlando: Academic Press Inc. Gibbons, P. (2001). Learning a New Register in a Second Language. In C. Candlin and

N. Mercer (Eds.), English Teaching in Its Social Context: A Reader, pp. 258-270. London: Routledge.

Gibbons, P. (2002). Scaffolding Language, Scaffolding Learning: Teaching Second Language Learners in the Mainstream Classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Hacker, Diana. 2003. A writer’s reference. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

Halliday, M.A.K and C. Matthiessen. (1978). An Introduction to Functional Grammar

(3rd). London: Arnold.

Halliday, M.A.K. (1985). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Edward Arnold.

Halliday, M.A.K. (1985). Context of situation. In M.A.K Halliday, and R. Hasan.1985.

Language, Context, and Text: Aspects of Language in a Social-Semiotic Perspective. pp. 3-12. Victoria: Deakin University Press

Hammond, J. (1990). Is learning to read and write the same as learning to speak?. In F. Christie (Ed.), Literacy for a Changing World, pp.26-53. Australia: ACER.

Hammond, J. (2001). Scaffolding and Language. In J. Hammond (Ed.), Scaffolding: Teaching and Learning in Language and Literacy, pp.15-30. Education. Sydney: Primary English Teaching Association., pp.

Haneda, M. (2004). The Joint Construction of Meaning in Writing Conferences. Applied

Linguistics, 25 (2), pp. 178-219.

Harmer, Jeremy. 2001. The Practice of English Language Teaching. (3rd Ed). England: Person Education Limited.

Johns, Ann M (2002). Genre in the classroom: Multiple perspectives. (Ed). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publisher.

Langan, John. 1987. College writing skills. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.

Martin, J.R. (1999). Mentoring semogenesis: ‘genre-based’ literacy pedagogy. In F. Christie (Ed.), Pedagogy and the Shaping of Consciousness: Linguistic and Social Processes, pp. 123-155. London: Cassell.

Maxwell, Joseph A. 1996. Qualitative research design: an interactive approach. London: Sage.

Merriam, Sharan B. 1988. Case study research in education: a qualitative approach. San Fransisco: Jossey – Bass.

Merriam, Sharan B. 1998. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publisher.

Moleong, Joy. 1993. Teaching ESL writing. New Jersey: Regents/Prentice Hall.

Moon, Elizabeth. 1998. How to identify the dread writer’s block and its relatives.

Available at http://www.sff.net/people/Elizabeth.Moon/block.htm

Mukminatien, Nur. 1987. The differences of Students’ Writing Achievement Across Different Course Levels. Unpublished Master Thesis. English Education Program, Post Graduate Program. IKIP Malang.

Murray, Donald M. 2004. The craft of revision. Boston: Thomson Heinle.

Parris, Trevor B. 2001. Writing Process. Available at http://viaccess.net/tparris/ home/eng.100/waprocess.html (January 21, 2001).

Rasyid, Fathor. 1999. Teaching Argumentative Writing Through Cooperative Learning.

Unpublished Master Thesis. English Education Program, Post Graduate Program. IKIP Malang.

Pusat Kurikulum- Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Departemen Pendidikan

Nasional. (2001). Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi: Mata Pelajaran bahasa

Inggris Sekolah Menengah Umum. Jakarta: Departemen pendidikan Nasional. Richards, Jack C. 1990. The language teaching matrix. Cambridge: Cambridge. Ronk, Thom. 2003. Essay writing: step-by-step. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Saraka. 1988. From Paragraph to Essay. Concepts and Practices. Departemen

Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, Direktorat Jendral Pendidikan Tinggi, P2LPTK. Jakarta.

Scholes, R and Nancy R Compley. 1985. The Practice of Writing. St. Marthin’s Press, Inc. 175 Fifth Avenue New York, NY 10010.

Smith, Quade. 1995. Students writers at work: and in the company of other writers.

New York: St. Martin.

Suyanto, K. (2001). Pengembangan Kurikulum Bahasa Indonesia . Jurnal Pendidikan, 6

THN XXVIII, pp. 26-33

Trimmer, Joseph F. 1992. Writing with a purpose. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.Thn

White, Nancy. 2001. Writing Power: Essential Guide for Writing Success. New York: Kaplan Publishing.

4. Students have problems related to procedure—what to write and how to write it. The former related to content that should they write, whereas the latter related to procedures or ways that are applied in the process of narrative writing stages. Understanding the writing problems is important for teachers in order to help students cope with their problems. In relation to the problems mentioned above, it is assumed that teachers should provide opportunities for students to improve their writing skills. They need to give students more of everything—more time; more opportunity to talk, listen, read, and write; more instruction and practice in the skills students will use most frequently in academic writing.

5. One of the popular models of genre approaches is the Curriculum Cycle or Wheel model. There are some variations of this curriculum cycle model (e.g Callaghan and Rothery 1989; Hammond 1990; and Callaghan, Knapp, and Noble 1993). Despite the variations, this wheel model consists of three main stages that include modeling, joint construction and independent construction.

6. At the first stage, modeling, refers to a stage where the genre in question is presented and analysed by the teacher with the students in various activities. Modeling is an important aspect of the genre approach. At this stage the social purpose, text structure and language features of genre are investigated (Callaghan, Knapp, and Noble, 1993). The modelling stage focused on two main aspects, building the students’ background knowledge about the topic and introducing the students to a model of genre to be learned (Feez and Joyce, 1998; Hammond, 1990; Paltridge 2001).

7. The students are introduced to model text (s) of a genre the students are supposed to learn. Through this way the students learn the concept of genre and the significant

features of the genre. Reading the model text, the students investigate the social purpose, the schematic structure and language features of the genre (Callaghan et al, in Cope and Kalantzis, 1993; Christie, 1992; Gibbons, 2002; Martin, 1999). In the curriculum cycle of the genre-based approach, this stage comes before the joint construction. According to Hammond in Paltridge (2001), teachers, however, may also come back to modelling at any stage if it is necessary as the stages of a curriculum cycle are not necessarily fix in sequence.

8. Regarding writing as a process, English teachers and the participants, particularly those involved in this research should apply many strategies which are more appeal and meaningful to enhance the students’ competence in writing a narrative text. Based on the data of this research, the researcher believes that Genre-Based Approach (GBA) is still possible to be adopted in teaching English for junior high schools, particularly in teaching writing, such as by implementing the teaching cycles: the Building of the Field, the Deconstruction, the Joint and the Independent construction of the text. Although are they not the only most effective ways to choose, but at least those teaching cycles can lead to systematic steps. In addition, the more systematic the teaching and learning processes are done, the researcher believes the more satisfactory the results from them will be gained.

9. Finally, The researcher invites all English teachers, academic practices, researchers, and all educational sympathizers to conduct similar research to enhance the quality of the findings in this research. For the readers’ positive responses, critiques to this research, the researcher attends a warmly thank.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Agustien, Helena I. 2006. Genre-Based Approach and the 2004 English Curriculum. A plenary paper presented in National Seminar at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia. Bandung.

Alwasilah, A. Chaedar. 2001. Language, culture, and education: a portrait of contemporary Indonesia. Bandung: Andira.

Alwasilah, A Chaedar. 2002. Pokoknya Kualitatif. Jakarta, Bandung: PT Kiblat Buku Utama.

Alwasilah, A. Chaedar and Alwasilah, Senny Suzanna. 2005. Pokoknya Menulis. Bandung 40264. PT Kiblat Buku Utama.

Axelrod, Rise B. and Charles R. Cooper. 1988. The St. Marthin’s Guide to writing. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Axelrod, Rise B. and Charles R. Cooper. 1998. The St. Marthin’s Guide to writing. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Bruner, J. S. 1986. Actual minds, possible worlds, Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press.

Callaghan, M. 1989. A Brief Introduction to Genre. Erskineville, NSW: Metropolitan East Disadvantaged School’s Program.

Callaghan, M and Rothery, G. 1993. The Power of Literacy. Erskineville, NSW: Metropolitan East Disadvantaged School’s Program.

Callaghan, M. P. Knapp., and G. Noble. (1993). Genre in Practice. In B. Cope and M. Kalantzis (Eds.), The Powers of Literacy: A Genre Approach to Teaching Writing, pp. 179- 202. London: The Falmer Press.

Christie, F. (1992). Preparation of Teachers for Teaching English Literacy: What Constitutes Essential Knowledge? In N. Bird and J. Harris (Eds.), Quilt and Quill: Achieving and Maintaining Quality in Language Teaching and Learning, pp.222-239. Hongkong: Institute of Language in Education.

Cope, Bill and Kalantzis, Mary. 1993. The Power of Literacy: A Genre Approach to Teaching Writing. London, Washington, DC: The Falmer Press.

Departemen Pendidikan Nasional Republik Indonesia. (2001). Program Pembangunan Nasional (PROPENAS):Pembangunan Pendidikan. Retrieved 22 May, 2001 from http:// www. pdk. go.id/ program.htm.

Eggins, Suzanne. (1994). An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics. London and New York: Continum.

Emilia, Emi. 2006. Pengajaran Ketrampilan Berfikir Kritis. Presented in Forum Ilmiah II: Pemikiran-pemikiran Inovatif dalam Kajian Bahasa, Sastra, Seni, dan Pembelajarannya. Bandung: Fakultas Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni. Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia.

Fairclough, Norman. 2003. Analysing Discourse: Textual analysis for social research. London and New York: Routledge.

Feez. S. and Joyce. H. 1988. “Effective Writing Conference: Teaching and Learning, One to One. [Online] Available at:

http://www.umkc.edu/cad/nad/nadedocs/94conpap/mkcpap94.htm

Feez, Susan. and Joyce, Helen. (1998). Text-Based Syllabus Design. Sydney: National Center for English Language Teaching.

Feez, Susan and Joyce, Helen. 1998. Writing Skills: Narrative & Non-Fiction Text Types. Australia: Phoenix Education Pty Ltd.

Fox, Richard. 1993. Teachers Taking about Writing at Key Stage 2. Reading Journal ed. July 1993. School of Education. University of Exerter, EXI.

Gardener, Sue. 1995. “Learning to Write as an Adult”. In DEAKIN University for ELL626. 1995. Literacies and Education: Writing. Australia: Deakin University. Gerot and Wignel. 1994. Making Sense of Functional Grammar. Australia: Gerd Stabler,

Antipodean educational Enterprises (AEE).

Gibson, Joanna. 2002. Perspectives: Case studies for readers and writers. New York: Longman.

Glesne, Corrine and Peshkin, Alan. 1992. Becoming Qualitative Research: An Introduction. New York: Longman Publishing Group.

Goetz, Preissle Judith and Lecompte, Diane Margaret. 1984. Ethnography and Qualitative Design in Educational Research. Orlando: Academic Press Inc. Gibbons, P. (2001). Learning a New Register in a Second Language. In C. Candlin and

N. Mercer (Eds.), English Teaching in Its Social Context: A Reader, pp. 258-270. London: Routledge.

Gibbons, P. (2002). Scaffolding Language, Scaffolding Learning: Teaching Second Language Learners in the Mainstream Classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Hacker, Diana. 2003. A writer’s reference. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

Halliday, M.A.K and C. Matthiessen. (1978). An Introduction to Functional Grammar (3rd). London: Arnold.

Halliday, M.A.K. (1985). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Edward Arnold.

Halliday, M.A.K. (1985). Context of situation. In M.A.K Halliday, and R. Hasan.1985. Language, Context, and Text: Aspects of Language in a Social-Semiotic Perspective. pp. 3-12. Victoria: Deakin University Press

Hammond, J. (1990). Is learning to read and write the same as learning to speak?. In F. Christie (Ed.), Literacy for a Changing World, pp.26-53. Australia: ACER.

Hammond, J. (2001). Scaffolding and Language. In J. Hammond (Ed.), Scaffolding: Teaching and Learning in Language and Literacy, pp.15-30. Education. Sydney: Primary English Teaching Association., pp.

Haneda, M. (2004). The Joint Construction of Meaning in Writing Conferences. Applied Linguistics, 25 (2), pp. 178-219.

Harmer, Jeremy. 2001. The Practice of English Language Teaching. (3rd Ed). England: Person Education Limited.

Johns, Ann M (2002). Genre in the classroom: Multiple perspectives. (Ed). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publisher.

Langan, John. 1987. College writing skills. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.

Martin, J.R. (1999). Mentoring semogenesis: ‘genre-based’ literacy pedagogy. In F. Christie (Ed.), Pedagogy and the Shaping of Consciousness: Linguistic and Social Processes, pp. 123-155. London: Cassell.

Maxwell, Joseph A. 1996. Qualitative research design: an interactive approach. London: Sage.

Merriam, Sharan B. 1988. Case study research in education: a qualitative approach. San Fransisco: Jossey – Bass.

Merriam, Sharan B. 1998. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publisher.

Moleong, Joy. 1993. Teaching ESL writing. New Jersey: Regents/Prentice Hall.

Moon, Elizabeth. 1998. How to identify the dread writer’s block and its relatives. Available at http://www.sff.net/people/Elizabeth.Moon/block.htm

Mukminatien, Nur. 1987. The differences of Students’ Writing Achievement Across Different Course Levels. Unpublished Master Thesis. English Education Program, Post Graduate Program. IKIP Malang.

Murray, Donald M. 2004. The craft of revision. Boston: Thomson Heinle.

Parris, Trevor B. 2001. Writing Process. Available at http://viaccess.net/tparris/ home/eng.100/waprocess.html (January 21, 2001).

Rasyid, Fathor. 1999. Teaching Argumentative Writing Through Cooperative Learning. Unpublished Master Thesis. English Education Program, Post Graduate Program. IKIP Malang.

Pusat Kurikulum- Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Departemen Pendidikan Nasional. (2001). Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi: Mata Pelajaran bahasa Inggris Sekolah Menengah Umum. Jakarta: Departemen pendidikan Nasional. Richards, Jack C. 1990. The language teaching matrix. Cambridge: Cambridge. Ronk, Thom. 2003. Essay writing: step-by-step. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Saraka. 1988. From Paragraph to Essay. Concepts and Practices. Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, Direktorat Jendral Pendidikan Tinggi, P2LPTK. Jakarta.

Scholes, R and Nancy R Compley. 1985. The Practice of Writing. St. Marthin’s Press, Inc. 175 Fifth Avenue New York, NY 10010.

Smith, Quade. 1995. Students writers at work: and in the company of other writers. New York: St. Martin.

Suyanto, K. (2001). Pengembangan Kurikulum Bahasa Indonesia . Jurnal Pendidikan, 6 THN XXVIII, pp. 26-33

Trimmer, Joseph F. 1992. Writing with a purpose. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.Thn

White, Nancy. 2001. Writing Power: Essential Guide for Writing Success. New York: Kaplan Publishing.