Designing a set of instructional materials using cooperative integrated reading and composition [CIRC] for the eleventh grade students of SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta - USD Repository

  

DESIGNING A SET OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS USING

COOPERATIVE INTEGRATED READING AND COMPOSITION (CIRC)

FOR THE ELEVENTH GRADE STUDENTS OF SMA NEGERI 4

YOGYAKARTA

.................................................................................................................

  

.....

  

A THESIS

  Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

  By Agatha Nila Sukma. M

  Student Number: 031214018

  

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

  A Sarjana Pendidikan Thesis on

  

DESIGNING A SET OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS USING

COOPERATIVE INTEGRATED READING AND COMPOSITION (CIRC)

FOR THE ELEVENTH GRADE STUDENTS OF SMA NEGERI 4

YOGYAKARTA

  Prepared and Presented by Agatha Nila Sukma. M

  Student Number: 031214018 Approved by:

  Yohana Veniranda, S. Pd., M. Hum. May 12, 2009 Sponsor

  

DESIGNING A SET OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS USING

COOPERATIVE INTEGRATED READING AND COMPOSITION (CIRC)

FOR THE ELEVENTH GRADE STUDENTS OF SMA NEGERI 4

YOGYAKARTA

  By AGATHA NILA SUKMA. M

  Student Number: 031214018 Defended before the Board of Examiners on June 8, 2009 and Declared Acceptable

  

Board of Examiners

  Chair person : A. Hardi Prasetyo, S.Pd., M.A. ____________ Secretary : Made Frida Yulia, S.Pd., M.Pd. ____________ Member : Yohana Veniranda, S.Pd., M.Hum. ____________ Member : G. Punto Aji, S.Pd., M.Hum. ____________ Member : Made Frida Yulia, S.Pd., M.Pd. ____________

  Yogyakarta, June 8, 2009 Faculty of Teachers Training and Education Sanata Dharma University Dean, Drs. Tarsisius Sarkim, M.Ed., Ph.D.

  

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY

  I honestly declare that the thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the references, as a scientific paper should.

  Yogyakarta, June 8, 2009 The Writer

  Agatha Nila Sukma. M 031214018

  

“Ia menjadikan segala

sesuatu indah pada waktunya”

(Pengkotbah 3:11)

  

I dedicate this thesis to:

Mother Mary and Jesus Christ

My beloved parents Y. Sukamdani & Th. Ratna N

My older sister Ch. Sugiharti

  

My younger brother F. Chris. M

and My Lovely Antonius Eko Haryanto, S.E.

  

ABSTRACT

  Sukma. M, Agatha Nila. 2009. Designing a Set of Instructional Materials Using

  

Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) for the Eleventh Grade

Students of SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta . Yogyakarta: English Language Education

  Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.

  This research aims to design a set of instructional materials to teach reading and writing using Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) for the eleventh grade students of SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta. Teaching reading and writing in an integrative way can help the students learn reading and writing better.

  There were two problems formulated in this study. They were: 1) How is a set of instructional materials using Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) for the eleventh grade students of SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta designed? 2) What does the designed set of materials look like?

  Educational Research and Development (R & D) method was employed in this study. The steps were 1) Research and Information Collecting, 2) Planning, 3) Development of Preliminary Form of Product, 4) Preliminary Field Testing, and 5) Main Product Revision.

  In order to answer the first problem, the writer applied the adaptation of Kemp’s instructional model as the realization of Educational Research and Development (R & D) method. There were seven steps employed in this study i.e.

  1) Identifying learners’ characteristics, 2) Determining goals, topics and general purposes, 3) Formulating learning objectives, 4) Listing the subject content, 5) Developing the designed materials, 6) Evaluating the designed materials, and 7) Revising the designed materials.

  To answer the second question, the writer presented the designed materials. The designed materials consisted of eight units. Each unit was divided into five parts, namely: Let’s Think First, It’s Time to Read, How to Say It?,

  

Grammar Focus and Write Your Story. Let’s Think First is pre-activity to activate

  students’ prior knowledge about what is going to be learned and to introduce the topic. It’s Time to Read is the main activity where students read the text given and do reading activities. How to Say it? is the part in which the students learn the suitable expressions in using language in discussion. Grammar Focus is the activity to learn grammar found in the reading text. Write Your Story is the last activity in which the students write a composition after they obtain the model from the reading text. Those activities were based on Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) framework where the teacher can teach integrated reading and writing.

  The preliminary field testing showed that the total mean for the designed materials was 3.49 out of 4. It meant that the designed materials were good and acceptable.

  

ABSTRAK

  Sukma. M, Agatha Nila. 2009. Designing a Set of Instructional Materials Using

  

Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) for the Eleventh Grade

Students of SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta . Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan

  Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

  Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengembangkan seperangkat materi pembelajaran untuk mengajar membaca dan menulis dengan menggunakan Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) bagi siswa kelas sebelas SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta. Pengajaran membaca dan menulis yang terintegrasi dapat membantu siswa belajar membaca dan menulis dengan lebih baik.

  Ada dua permasalahan yang diformulasikan dalam studi ini. Permasalahan tersebut yaitu: 1) Bagaimana satu set materi menggunakan Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) bagi siswa kelas sebelas SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta dirancang? 2) Seperti apakah penyajian rancangan materi yang telah disusun tersebut?

  Beberapa langkah dari metode Educational Research and Development (R

  

& D) diterapkan di dalam studi ini. Langkah-langkah tersebut yaitu 1) Penelitian

  dan pengumpulan informasi, 2) Perencanaan, 3) Pengembangan bentuk awal produk, 4) Pengujian awal di lapangan, dan 5) Perbaikan/ revisi produk.

  Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, penulis mengadaptasi model perancangan materi yang dikembangkan oleh Kemp sebagai realisasi dari metode

  

Educational Research and Development (R & D). Ada tujuh langkah perancangan

  materi yang diterapkan penulis dalam studi ini. Langkah-langkah tersebut yaitu: 1) Pengidentifikasian karakter siswa, 2) Perumusan tujuan, topik dan tujuan umum, 3) Perumusan tujuan khusus, 4) Perincian isi materi, 5) Pengembangan materi, 6) Pengevaluasian materi, dan 7) Perbaikan materi.

  Untuk menjawab pertanyaan kedua, penulis menampilkan rancangan materi yang terdiri dari delapan unit. Setiap unit dibagi menjadi lima bagian yaitu:

  

Let’s Think First, It’s Time to Read, How to Say It, Grammar Focus dan Write

Your Story , Let’s Think First merupakan kegiatan pembuka yang dapat

  mengaktifkan pengetahuan umum siswa berkenaan dengan topik yang akan dipelajari. It’s Time to Read merupakan bagian utama dimana siswa membaca teks bacaan dan melakukan berbagai macam aktivitas membaca. How to Say it? merupakan bagian dimana siswa mempelajari ungkapan-ungkapan yang tepat dalam menggunakan bahasa di dalam diskusi kelompok. Grammar Focus

  

merupakan bagian untuk mempelajari tata bahasa yang ditemukan di dalam teks

  bacaan. Write Your Story merupakan aktivitas terakhir yang memfokuskan siswa untuk menulis sebuah karangan setelah mereka mempelajari model yang diberikan dalam teks bacaan. Aktivitas-aktivitas tersebut disusun berdasarkan kerangka kerja Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC).

  Pengujian awal di lapangan menunjukkan bahwa nilai rata-rata total pada rancangan materi adalah 3.49 dari skala 4. Hal ini berarti bahwa rancangan materi dikembangkan dengan baik dan dapat diterima.

  

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

  Firstly, I would like to thank and praise the Lord for the blessings to my life especially for His blessing in finishing this hard thesis.

  My gratitude is addressed to my sponsor, Yohana Veniranda, S.Pd.,

  

M.Hum. for her time, suggestions, evaluation and assistance. I would also like to

  thank Ch. Lhaksmita Anandari, S.Pd., M.Ed. for her willingness to spend her time evaluating my designed materials.

  I thank SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta for giving me an opportunity to conduct this research. I would also like to thank the English teachers of SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta, Bu Indarwati, Pak Rudatan, and Pak Tranggono for their help and cooperation.

  I express my deepest gratitude to my beloved parents Y. Sukamdani. M and Th. Ratna Ningsih for their endless love, prayer, support, patience and for everything they gave to me. I would also say sorry to them since they had to wait for so long for my graduation. My special thank is also to my older sister, Ch.

  

Sugiharti and my younger brother, F. Chris. M. They always love and support

me. I love them so much.

  I would also say my big thank to my best friends Kameliya and Arum, who always support me. I thank them for the time we shared together and for many things they gave. I am so lucky to get to know them. I express my thanks to my best friends in my boarding house Ria, Kristy, Nina, Rosa, Derma, Hana,

  Imun, Rinda, Risa, Wika and Elvi for their friendship and support.

  I would also like to thank all of PBI-03ers, especially Lala, Nita, Ratri, for the big family of UKM Kerohanian Sanata Dharma University, Wisma Bahasa English Division (Mbak Mawar, Mbak Niken, Mbak Prima, Mas Bagus, Siwi,

  

and Mas Sugeng) and Gandroeng Choir (Mas Didit, Mas Kunto, Ijup, Mas

Wawan, Agus, and other members). I thank them for the support, the wonderful

  experience and for the time we shared together. In addition, I warmly thank Adrian for kindly spending his precious hours proofreading my thesis.

  The last, I would like to express my deepest affection and gratitude to my lovely boyfriend, Antonius Eko Haryanto, S.E. for his endless love, support and patience to me in finishing my study.

  Agatha Nila Sukma. M

  TABLE OF CONTENTS

  Page TITLE PAGE .............................................................................................. i APPROVAL PAGES .................................................................................. ii STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY .......................................... iv DEDICATION PAGE ................................................................................. v ABSTRACT ................................................................................................ vi

  

ABSTRAK .................................................................................................... vii

  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................ viii TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................. x LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................... xii LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................... xiii LIST OF APPENDICES .............................................................................. xiv

  CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Research Background .................................................................. 1 B. Problem Formulation ................................................................... 4 C. Problem Limitation ...................................................................... 4 D. Research Objective ...................................................................... 5 E. Research Benefits ........................................................................ 5 F. Definition of Terms ..................................................................... 6 CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A. Theoretical Description ............................................................... 9

  1. Kemp’s Instructional Design Model ....................................... 9

  2. Teaching Reading and Writing................................................. 11

  a. Reading ................................................................................ 12

  b. Writing ................................................................................. 13

  c. The Principle of Teaching Reading and Writing to the Eleventh Grade Students of Senior High School ................. 14

  3. Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) ..... 17

  a. The Characteristics of CIRC ................................................ 17

  b. Reading and Writing in the CIRC Framework ...................... 21

  B. Theoretical Framework ................................................................ 25

  CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY A. Research Method ......................................................................... 29 B. Research Participants ................................................................... 33 C. Research Instruments ................................................................... 34 D. Data Gathering Technique .......................................................... 36 E. Data Analysis Technique ............................................................ 37 F. Research Procedures .................................................................... 40 CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS A. The Steps of Designing Instructional Materials for SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta ......................................................................................... 43

  1. Identifying Learners’ Characteristics .................................. 43

  2. Stating Goals, Topics, and General Purposes ...................... 54

  3. Stating Learning Objectives ................................................ 57

  4. Listing the Subject Contents................................................ 59

  5. Designing the Learning Materials ....................................... 59

  6. Evaluating the Designed Materials ...................................... 60

  7. Revising the Designed Materials ......................................... 62

  B. The Presentation of the Designed Materials ............................... 63

  CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusions ................................................................................. 65 B. Suggestions ................................................................................. 67 REFERENCES ............................................................................................ 69

  LIST OF TABLES

  Page Table 3.1: The Description of Evaluation Survey Respondents .................... 34 Table 3.2: Points of Agreement of the Respondents’ Opinions ..................... 38 Table 3.3: The Data of the Respondents’ Opinion (Blank) ........................... 39 Table 3.4: The Assessment of Central Tendency ........................................... 40 Table 4.1: The Result of Questionnaires ........................................................ 48 Table 4.2: List of Topics and Basic Competence ........................................... 55 Table 4.3: The Learning Indicators ................................................................ 57 Table 4.4: The Data of the Respondents’ Opinion ......................................... 60 Table 4.5: The Order of the Topics and Unit Titles ...................................... 63

  LIST OF FIGURES

  Page Figure 2.1: Kemp’s Instructional Model ........................................................ 11 Figure 2.2: A Model of Reading Comprehension .......................................... 13 Figure 2.3: The Adaptation of Kemp’s Instructional Model........................... 28 Figure 3.1: The Relation between R & D Method and the Writer’s Model.... 33 Figure 3.2: Research Procedures..................................................................... 42

  

LIST OF APPENDICES

  Page Appendix A: Letters of Permission .................................................. 71 Appendix B: Surat Keterangan Penelitian ......................................... 74 Appendix C: Needs Survey Questionnaire ........................................ 75 Appendix D: Interview Guideline ..................................................... 79 Appendix E: Evaluation Survey Questionnaire ................................. 80 Appendix F: General Description of the Designed Materials ............ 83 Appendix G: Syllabus ........................................................................ 86 Appendix H: A Sample of Lesson Plan ............................................. 92 Appendix I: The Designed Materials ................................................ 96

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter provides background information and rationale for this

  research. It covers seven parts; they are research background, problem formulation, problem limitation, research objectives, research benefits and definition of terms.

A. Research Background

  In learning English, Senior High School students have to master four basic skills. They are listening, speaking, reading and writing. Learning all the skills is not easy because they are very different from the students’ mother tongue.

  As the skills included in the four basic skills, reading and writing are indeed difficult to learn. According to Urquhart and Weir (1998: 37), reading is a cognitive activity. It largely takes place in the mind and it also needs technical process in order comprehend the text.That statement finds agreement from Burden (1999: 68). He describes reading as a fluent process of readers combining information from a text and their own background knowledge to build meaning in which the goal is comprehension. The process of course takes place in the mind.

  The above facts explain what reading is and the difficulty of reading, while writing is a method of expressing ideas about any subject content (Tiedt, 1989: 1).

  He confirms that writing is one way of expressing what we think which demands the use of conventions such as punctuation, capitalization, and spelling, as well as standard usage. These obstacles make reading and writing difficult to learn.

  2 Furthermore, as written expression, Cohen and Plaskon (1980: 273) mention that reading and writing cover reading, spelling, vocabulary, and writing conventions (capitalization, punctuation, and organization). National Writing Project and Carl Nagin (2007: 9) also agree that: writing is hard because it is a struggle of thought, feeling, and imagination to find expression clear enough for the task at hand. Doing it well means being both a writer and a reader. As a writer, we look through language and try to discover what we mean to say; as a reader, we look at language with an editor’s eye to be sure that we have found the right words to express the ideas.

  These facts indicate that reading and writing are difficult, but they are also important to communicate successfully. However, from the writer’s experience in the teaching practice (Program Pengalaman Lapangan II) in SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta, many students; especially the eleventh grade students face those problems. Actually, most of them have good ability in English, but they are afraid to express their ideas in the written form. Many of them also have difficulty in comprehending the reading text.

  Thus, there is a need to find out an effective method to teach reading and writing skills, so that the students can learn those skills easily. One method can be used in the classroom is cooperative learning. In cooperative learning, students work together in four-member teams to master material initially presented by the teacher (Slavin, 1995: 5). The five principal methods in cooperative learning are Student Teams-Achievement Divisions (STAD), Teams-Games-Tournaments (TGT), Jigsaw II, Team Accelerated Instruction (TAI) and Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) as stated by Slavin (1995: 5).

  Among those principal methods, there is a method that is suitable and can

  3 Slavin (1995: 7) is called Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC). He states the definition as follows:

  “CIRC is a comprehensive program for teaching reading, writing, and language arts in the upper elementary and middle grades ... Students work in pairs within their teams on a series of cognitively engaging activities, including reading to one another, making predictions about how narrative stories will be resolved, summarizing stories to one another, writing responses to stories, and practicing spelling, decoding, and vocabulary”.

  In CIRC, the students have to work in groups to comprehend the reading text and then to produce a composition. Using this method, we can integrate reading and writing. It is supported by Tiedt (1989: 5) who says “students learn to write by reading”. Moreover, the National Writing Project and Carl Nagin (2007: 32) state that the research has led many educators to agree that integrating reading and writing has multiple benefits for development of literacy.

  Therefore, the writer agrees that CIRC is the appropriate method to teach integrated reading and writing for Senior High School students. In CIRC theory, narrative is emphasized as the material to be developed. This fact is relevant with the latest curriculum called KTSP (Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan) in which narrative genre is taught in grade X, XI, and XII of Senior High School in every semester.

  Considering all the facts above, the writer decided that it is important to design materials for teaching integrated reading and writing. In this study, the writer intended to design a set of instructional materials to teach reading and writing for the eleventh grade of SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta using Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC). The writer hopes that the designed materials will enable the students to improve their reading and writing skill.

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  B. Problem Formulation The problems of this research are formulated as presented below.

  1. How is a set of instructional materials using Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) for the eleventh grade students of SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta designed?

  2. What does the set of instructional materials using Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) for the eleventh grade students of SMA

  Negeri 4 Yogyakarta look like?

  C. Problem Limitation

  This research focuses on designing a set of English instructional materials for the eleventh grade students of SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta especially for learning integrated reading and writing, using Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC). The writer chooses SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta because she wanted to make a contribution to that school in order to help the students to master reading and writing skills. It can be seen as a follow-up to the writer’s teaching practice (PPL II). The research is limited to the eleventh grade students only in order to make the research more effective and focused.

  Furthermore, the writer chooses Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) because using CIRC, the teacher can teach integrated reading and writing. As the part of cooperative learning, by using CIRC the students can improve their learning because they work in groups and help their teammates. It is stated by Slavin (1995: 4) that the idea of cooperative learning is

  5 genre. It is related to the CIRC theory which says that narrative is emphasized as the material to be developed.

  Moreover, this set of instructional materials which is limited to eight units is aimed at being used in the first and second semester of the eleventh grade students of SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta. It is the teacher’s job to be flexible to use this designed material to teach reading and writing skill through narrative genre.

  The writer does not intend to implement this set of instructional materials. Therefore, the writer only presents the designed materials.

  D. Research Objectives

  There are two main objectives in this research related to the problems stated previously. The objectives of the research can be formulated as presented below.

  1. To find out how a set of instructional materials using Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) for the eleventh grade students of SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta is designed.

  2. To present the set of instructional materials using Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) for the eleventh grade students of SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta.

  E. Research Benefits

  The result of this research will hopefully be beneficial for the eleventh grade students of SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta, the English teachers of SMA Negeri

  6 First, knowing the result of this study, the eleventh grade students of SMA

  

Negeri 4 Yogyakarta can hopefully easily learn reading and writing skills through

  the designed materials. Second, the result of this study can be beneficial for the English teachers of SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta. The English teachers can hopefully improve their teaching techniques and be flexible especially in teaching reading and writing using CIRC. The designed materials provided in this research can be the examples for the English teachers. The last, it is hoped that the result of this study can be used as a reference to support future relevant studies done by other researchers. The other researchers can also implement the designed materials since in this study the writer doesn’t implement the designed materials. The writer only designs and presents it.

F. Definition of Terms

  In this section, some terms used in the research are defined to avoid misinterpretation and misunderstanding. There are Instructional Materials, Reading, Writing, Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC), and SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta.

  1. Instructional Materials Instructional materials are materials planned or designed by the teacher for the teacher instructions (Dick and Reiser, 1989: 3). In this study, instructional materials mean the materials designed by the writer to be used by the English teacher and the students of SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta in conducting teaching- learning process that will help the students to improve their reading and writing skill through narrative.

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  2. Reading According to Urquhart and Weir (1998: 37), reading is a cognitive activity.

  It largely takes place in the mind. That statement finds agreement from Burden (1999: 68). He says that reading is a fluent process of readers combining information from a text and their own background knowledge to build meaning in which the goal is comprehension. The process of course takes place in the mind. In this study, reading is a process of building knowledge from information in the text and the students’ background knowledge.

  3. Writing According to Zimmerman and Rodrigues (1992: 4), writing is a way of thinking, a way of learning, a way of sharing ideas with others. Through writing, people can share their thinking and ideas with others in the written expressions. Tiedt (1989: 1) agrees when he said “writing is a method of expressing ideas about any subject content…” In this study, writing is a skill of expressing the ideas related to the reading text epecially about narrative. The students share their ideas and thinking into a written form. It is supported by Tiedt (1989: 4) who believes that students learn to write by reading.

  4. Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) CIRC is a comprehensive program for teaching reading and writing in the upper elementary and middle grades (Slavin, 1995: 7). Although the theory states that CIRC is for the upper elementary and middle grades, the writer considers that English native speakers are included. It is indeed different with the role of English in Indonesia. In this study, where English has a function as a foreign language, the writer considers that Senior High School students are included as the middle

  8 grades. Thus, CIRC is used in this study to teach integrated reading and writing for the eleventh grade students of Senior High School.

  5. SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta

  SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta is located on Magelang Street Karangwaru Lor,

  Yogyakarta. This school has 18 classes and each grade has 6 classes. The eleventh grade students in SMA Negeri 4 Yogyakarta consist of four science streams and two social streams.

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE This chapter discusses the theories and concepts that are the basis for the

  discussion of this study. There are two major sections in this chapter. The first is theoretical description and the second one is theoretical framework.

A. Theoretical Description

  There are three relevant theories discussed in this part.Those theories are Kemp’s Instructional Design Model, Teaching Reading and Writing and the theory of Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC).

1. Kemp’s Instructional Design Model

  There are many kinds of instructional design used in designing the materials. One of them is Kemp’s Intructional Design Model. Kemp’s model (1977: 9) is a flexible cycle that proposes eight interdependent elements which should be considered in designing instructional materials. The eight elements are:

a. Considering Goals, Topics and General Purposes

  Stating goals is important in all educational programs. Most of the designers start with the formulation of the goals before designing the materials.

  After establishing its goals, it is also important to list the topics and state the general purposes for teaching each topic. The topics will become the basis for the instruction. The selection of topics should be sequenced from simple to the complex level. (Kemp, 1977: 15). By knowing the goals, topics, and general purposes, the designer knows what materials are going to be included.

  10

  b. Identifying Learners’ Characteristics

  In this step, the designer should obtain information about the students’ capabilities, needs and interests (Kemp, 1977: 18). Knowing the learners’ characteristics is very important because it influences the instructional planning.

  c. Specifying Learning Objectives

  The designer has to specify the learning objectives to be achieved by the students. Kemp (1977: 34) states that objectives tell students about what goals they must obtain so that they can better prepare their work. It means that all activities in teaching learning process must be able to support the achievement of the learning objectives.

  d. Listing the Subject Content

  The subject content supports each objective. In other words, objectives are what you want content to do. In organizing the content, the designer should prepare the outline of the information that will be taught (Kemp, 1977: 44).

  e. Developing Pre-assessments

  Kemp (1977: 50) states that the designer develops pre-assessment in order to know whether the students are ready to study the topic or not. The other reason is to know the students’ competence in some of the stated objectives. Pre- assessment can be done through a placement and diagnostic test.

  f. Selecting Teaching/ Learning Activities and Instructional Resources The designer must determine the most efficient and effective methods.

  Then, the designer selects the teaching learning materials to provide learning experiences in order to accomplish the objective (Kemp, 1977: 55). The materials must be related with the teaching method chosen.

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  g. Considering the support services

  The designer should also consider the support services such as budget, personnel, facilities, equipment, and schedules. Kemp (1977: 84) explains that those support services are used to carry out the instructional plan

  h. Conducting Evaluation The last step should be done by the designer is conducting evaluation.

  According to Kemp (1977: 91), evaluation is used to measure the learning outcomes relating to the objectives. It is important as the basic to make revision.

  Kemp’s instructional model is a flexible process since there is an interdependence among the eight elements above. When the designer chooses one step, it may affect others (Kemp, 1977: 9).

  

Goals,

Topics, &

Learner

General

  

Evaluation Charac-

Purposes

teristics

  

Revise

Learning Support

  Objectives Services Teaching/

learning Subject

  

Pre-

Activities, Content

Assess

Resources

ment

Figure 2.1 Kemp’s Instructional Model (Kemp, 1977: 9)

2. Teaching Reading and Writing

  Reading and writing are two important skills but difficult to learn. Cohen

  12 difficult of the communication arts to master. The process of putting one’s thoughts into written form involves the integration of all the areas of the language arts: oral expression, reading, handwriting, spelling, vocabulary, and writing conventions (capitalization, punctuation, and organization). Thus, it’s important for the teacher to know the nature of reading and writing as well as the principle of teaching reading and writing.

a. Reading According to Urquhart and Weir (1998: 37), reading is a cognitive activity.

  That statement finds agreement from Burden (1999: 68) who describes reading as a fluent process of readers combining information from a text and their own background knowledge to build meaning in which the goal is comprehension. The process of course takes place in the mind.

  As we read, we try to identify the precise topic, and each change of topic. This activates the ideas we have stored in our mind related to that topic (background knowledge) and helps us make sense of what we then read (Davies 2000: 90). We usually start reading with certain expectations; for example in reading a letter, we expect news or information from the writer.

  Davies (2000: 90) explains that based on our expectations, our previous ideas about the topic and our knowledge of the language and of the texts written in the language, to some extend we predict what will come next. It is a model of reading comprehension suggested by Davies (2000: 90-91). In other words, when we read, we use our memory of what has been read so far and relate it with our knowledge of the language. Then, we can predict what is coming next.

  The model of reading comprehension is showed in Figure 2.2.

  13

  Memory of what

has been read so far

Expectations and releveant ideas

  Prediction of what is coming next

Recognition of

meaningful segments of

texts and texts structure

  Reading Comprehension

Figure 2.2 A model of reading comprehension (Davies, 2000: 91)

  In this study, reading is a process of building knowledge from information in the text and the students’ background knowledge (what they have known before related to the text).

b. Writing

  According to Zimmerman and Rodrigues (1992: 4), writing is a way of thinking, a way of learning, a way of sharing ideas with others. Tiedt (1989: 1) also states that writing is a method of expressing ideas about any subject contents. Through writing, people can share their thinking and ideas with others in the written expressions. However, we know that written expression is one of the most difficult parts of the communication arts to master. Cohen and Plaskon (1980: 273) describe that:

  The process of putting one’s thoughts into written form involves the integration of all the areas of the language arts: oral expression, reading, handwriting, spelling, vocabulary, and writing conventions (capitalization, punctuation, and organization).

  The above facts show that writing is a complex and difficult process. The difficulty of writing is also agreed by Tiedt (1989: 26). He says that: ... writing is fairly slow and involves the use of motor skills that may be well developed. Writing also demands the use of conventions such as

  14 In this study, writing is a skill of expressing the ideas related to the reading text that the students learn after they read a text. The students share their ideas and thinking into a written form.

  

c. The Principles of Teaching Reading and Writing to the Eleventh Grade

Students of Senior High School

  Senior High School is a level of education after graduating from Junior High School that should be finished in three years. The eleventh grade students of Senior High School are the students being in the second year of their study in Senior High School. They are between 15 and 17 years old. According to Hurlock (1980: 184 ), they are in a transition period betwen puberty and adult. Therefore, they are likely to have unstable emotion. They always want to be understood and recognized. However, in this stage the students like to get along with their peers and to build relationship with people.

  Thus, those characteristics also influence their performance in studying. English as a foreign language learned in school is considered as a difficult subject. It covers four language skills and language elements. Hence, the students’ performance in learning English still falls short of expectations.

  Reading and writing as the parts of language skills are seen as the difficult parts in learning English. Most of the Senior High School students say that reading and writing are difficult to learn. It is supported by National Writing Project and Carl Nagin (2007: 9) that state:

  Writing is hard because it is a struggle of thought, feeling, and imagination to find expression clear enough for the task at hand. Doing it well means being both a writer and a reader. AS writer, we look through language and struggle to discover what we mean to say; as reader (of our own work), we look at the language with an editor’s eye to be sure we’ve found the right

  15 Considering the students’ characteristics and their perception in learning

  English especially for reading and writing skills, teaching reading and writing to the eleventh grade students of Senior High School is not an easy thing. Therefore, the teacher needs to understand the principles of teaching reading and writing. It is also important to know the relationship between reading and writing. Moreover, the teacher should be creative to conduct the teaching learning process so that it will be successful.

  According to Armbruster and Osborn (2002: 85-87), the reading process can be divided into three parts. They are prereading activities, during-reading activities, and postreading activities.

  Prereading activities involves the preparation before the students read. It covers activating and building background knowledge, building text-specific knowledge and vocabulary, setting purposes and direction for reading, and suggesting comprehension strategies. During-reading activities are the activities which facilitate students’ reading comprehension during the actual reading process. This stage is to help the students understand the text (Davies, 2000: 93).

  Postreading activities should help students do something related with what they have read. The students are to connect what they have read with their own ideas and experience. It covers further questioning, discussion, writing, drama, art, music, dance, and application and outreach in the real world.

  According to Tiedt (1989:1), teaching writing is a complex undertaking, for we never teach writing in isolation. As we plan to teach writing, we also teach thinking, listening, speaking, and reading skills, for all language skills are interdependent. Therefore, Tiedt (1989:2) sees the process of writing as the

  16 holistic process where the students think, feel, and experience as they produce a piece of writing.

  Related to the process of writing, Zemach (2007: 12) explains that there are some steps in writing; brainstorming, organizing, drafting, reviewing, editing and revising, and rewriting. Brainstorming is for gathering ideas. It can be done by discussing, freewriting, listing and mapping. Organizing is to choose which ideas to use and put them in order. Drafting is to write the complete essay from start to finish. Reviewing can be done by oneself, peers, or the teacher. Editing and revising are important to get feedback from others to improve the writing. Rewriting is the last process as the final product. That process is also agreed by Graves (1996: 124) who says the process of writing includes brainstorming, drafting, editing and revising. Graves points out that in this way, the process is emphasized, not the product.

  Considering the relationship between reading and writing, Tiedt (1989: 4) believes that students learn to write by reading. The students observe how the writer presents ideas and uses language in imaginative ways. They also learn to write by reading other students’ writings. When they do that, they learn many things from others; they learn the structure, grammar, etc. They can give comments and correct others’ mistakes. In this way, they are learning writing by reading.

  In accordance with that, before the teacher asks the students to write a specific form of writing, the teacher should introduce the structure by showing the examples or models. The students need to be familiar with the features of a fairy tale before they can write one successfully. The students need to develop “sense

  17 need to hear and to read other forms in order to create or to produce specific genres. It is supported by Derewianka (1990: 7) who explains that if children are to write in a particular genre, they first need to become familiar with its purpose and features through immersion in the genre and by exploring sample texts.

  Hence, it is a good point for the teacher to give a text model before asking the students to write.

  In this point, it is the teacher’s job to teach reading before teaching writing. Writing can function as the postreading activity as suggested by Armbruster and Osborn (2002: 87). They confirm that writing requires the active manipulation of ideas. It is a powerful way to help your students connect what they already know with the new information in the text.

3. Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC)

  Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) is a comprehensive program for teaching reading and writing in the upper elementary and middle grades (Slavin, 1995: 7). In Indonesia, English as a foreign language is considered difficult to learn. The writer considers that CIRC is appropriate to be implemented for the eleventh grade of Senior High School students as the middle grade learners of English as a foreign language.

a. The Characteristics of CIRC