Task-based instructional reading materials for SMK YPKK 3 Sleman - USD Repository

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TASK-BASED INSTRUCTIONAL READING MATERIALS

FOR SMK YPKK 3 SLEMAN

A THESIS

  Presented as the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

  By

  

Ratri Wahyuningtyas

Student Number: 03 1214 002

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TASK-BASED INSTRUCTIONAL READING MATERIALS

FOR SMK YPKK 3 SLEMAN

A THESIS

  Presented as the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

  By

  

Ratri Wahyuningtyas

Student Number: 03 1214 002

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I am nothing. He is all.

I do nothing of my own. He does it.

  

“ There is a time for everything, because for everything there

is a season. A time to be born and a time to die, a time to

weep and a time to laugh, a time to mourn and a time to

dance, a time to seek and a time to lose. He has made

everything beautiful in its time; also He has put eternity into

man’s mind.”

Ecclesiates 3: 1-11

  

I am God’s pencil.

A tiny bit of pencil with which He writes what He likes.

God writes through us, and however imperfect instruments we may be,

He writes beautifully.

• Mother Teresa -

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  This is for you all.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

  Finally, I had done this thesis. I could not have done this all without God’s blessing and supports from others. I would like to express my deepest and greatest gratitude to Jesus Christ and Mother Mary for blessing and guiding me.

  I am greatly indebted to Made Frida Yulia, S.Pd., M.Pd., my major sponsor, for her guidance, patience, and kindness. I thank her for her advice, corrections, and time to read my thesis thoroughly. My great thank goes to

  

Laurentia Sumarni, S.Pd., my co-sponsor, for her time to read my thesis and

correct it. I also thank her for giving me opportunity to improve my teaching skill.

  I would like to express my gratitude to Drs. Pius Nurwidasa P, M.Ed.,

  

Henny Herawati, S.Pd, M.Hum., and Caecilia Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd., for

  their time to evaluate the materials. My deepest thanks are addressed to all of the English Language Education Study Program lecturers. I would like to express thanks to Mbak Dhanniek, Mbak Tari, and all of the librarians for all of their assistance during my study.

  I deliver my best thanks to the English teachers of SMK YPKK 3 Sleman,

  

Kitik Supadmi, S.Pd. and Siti Nurhayati, S.Ag., for their helps and valuable

  feedback. I also thank all of the second grade students of SMK YPKK 3 Sleman

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  motivation to finish my thesis. I thank my only one brother, Bayu, for supporting me in his own way. I would like to express thanks to my relatives, for their support and prayer, especially Maguwo Crew: Om Sayid, Bulik Tanti, Dyas,

  

Bas, Hap, and Tyas. They really helped me a lot especially when I felt bored with

all the things I did.

  My sincere appreciation goes to the big family of SMP Maria Immaculata Yogyakarta, especially Suster Ancilla, Bu Ratmi, Bu Ning, Pak Adi, and Bu Novi, for giving me a chance to learn how to be a real teacher.

  My gratitude goes to my “journey” friends: Ichie, Ella, Maya, Nora, Nia, and Eko’Kdx’. They show me the true meaning of friendship. I would like to thank the old generation of ‘Mudika Yora’, for the great experiences, especially

  

Mbak Santi. All that we have done together really inspires me to be a tough and

  independent person. I express my gratitude to all PBI-03: Lintang, Nila, Arum,

  

Anas, Yusta, Netty, and Qyer. I also thank Mbak Ayu ’02 and Mas Gede Agus

  for sharing valuable knowledge. I deliver my very best thanks to BEEs: Nita,

  

Titien, Monchie, Ayoe, Layung, and Emil. I thank them for all the hard work,

  spirit, optimism, laughter, and dreams we shared together. BEE Happy! My sincere gratitude goes to Gabriel Adi W., for his understanding, care, and support. I thank him very much for being there for me and helping me

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ....................................................................................... i

  

APPROVAL PAGES ........................................................................... ii

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ................

  vi

  

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................. vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................... ix

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................... xii

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................. xiii

LIST OF APPENDICES ...................................................................... xiv

ABSTRACT .......................................................................................... xv

ABSTRAK .............................................................................................. xvi

  CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study...........................................................

  1 B. Problem Formulation.................................................................

  4 C. Problem Limitation....................................................................

  5 D. Objectives of the Study .............................................................

  5 E. Benefits of the Study ................................................................

  6

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  1. Instructional Design Models ................................................

  9 a. The Nature of Kemp’s Model ...........................................

  9 b. The Nature of Taba’s Model ............................................

  14 2. Reading ................................................................................

  16 a. The Nature of Reading ......................................................

  16 b. Principles for Teaching Reading.......................................

  17 c. Models of Reading Process ...............................................

  19 d. Access to Content..............................................................

  20 3. Task-Based Learning ...........................................................

  21 a. The Framework of Task-Based Learning..........................

  21 b. Principles of Task-Based Learning ...................................

  23 B. Theoretical Framework .............................................................

  24 CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY A. Method ......................................................................................

  30 B. Participants of the Study............................................................

  32 C. Research Instruments ................................................................

  33 D. Data Gathering Techniques.......................................................

  35 E. Data Analysis Techniques .........................................................

  36

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  for SMK YPKK 3 Sleman........................................................

  40 1. Conducting Needs Survey.....................................................

  40 2. Specifying Goals, Topics, and General Purposes .................

  41 3. Formulating Objectives.........................................................

  41 4. Selecting and Organizing Contents.......................................

  41 5. Selecting Teaching Learning Activities and Resources........

  42 6. Designing Materials ..............................................................

  44 7. Evaluating Materials .............................................................

  44 8. Revising Materials ................................................................

  44 B. The Results of the Surveys ........................................................

  45 1. The Results of the Needs Analysis .......................................

  45 a. The Results of the Questionnaire ....................................

  45 b. The Results of the Interview ...........................................

  49 2. The Results of Materials Evaluation.....................................

  52 C. The Presentation of the Final Design ........................................

  54 CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusions ................................................................................

  58 B. Suggestions ................................................................................

  61

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LIST OF TABLES

  Table Page 3.1 Participants of the Survey Study ......................................................

  33 4.1 Goals, Topics, and General Purposes ...............................................

  42 4.2 Objectives of the Course ..................................................................

  43 4.3 Results of Post-design Survey ..........................................................

  52

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  LIST OF FIGURES

  Figure Page 2.1 Kemp’s Instructional Design Model .................................................

  13 2.2 Components of the Willis’ Task-Based Learning Framework .........

  22 2.3 The Writer’s Instructional Design Model .........................................

  29

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LIST OF APPENDICES

  Page Appendix A: Surat Permohonan Ijin Penelitian ....................................

  65 Appendix B: Surat Keterangan ..............................................................

  68 Appendix C: The Questionnaire for Students ........................................

  70 Appendix D: Interview Checklist ..........................................................

  74 Appendix E: General Description ..........................................................

  76 Appendix F: The Questionnaire for Teachers and Lecturers..................

  80 Appendix G: The Results of Needs Survey ...........................................

  85 Appendix H: Syllabus ............................................................................

  88 Appendix I: Silabus ................................................................................ 96 Appendix J: The Designed Materials ..................................................... 106

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ABSTRACT

  Wahyuningtyas, Ratri. 2008. Task-Based Instructional Reading Materials for

  

SMK YPKK 3 Sleman . Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program,

Sanata Dharma University.

  To master English, students have to learn four skills, namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Among those skills, reading is the key to success in learning anything, including English. The students’ reading ability contributes a lot to their English mastery. There is a need for the eleventh grade students of SMK YPKK 3 Sleman to enhance their reading ability since it will really help them to master English. Moreover, the problem comes from the insufficient reading materials. To respond to the problem, a study which was intended to design Task-Based instructional reading materials for the eleventh grade students of SMK YPKK 3 Sleman was conducted.

  The study discussed two problems. Those problems are (1) How are Task- Based instructional reading materials for the eleventh grade students of SMK YPKK 3 Sleman designed? (2) What do Task-Based instructional reading materials for the eleventh grade students of SMK YPKK 3 Sleman look like? To answer those two questions, the writer employed Research and Development Method (R & D), which consisted of ten steps. In the study, the writer only employed the first five steps of R & D Method. Those steps were (1) researching and collecting information, (2) planning, (3) developing preliminary form of product, (4) conducting preliminary field-testing, and (5) revising main product.

  To obtain the data needed, the writer conducted two kinds of surveys, namely pre- design survey and post-design survey. In the pre-design survey, the writer used questionnaire and interview checklist as the instruments. Moreover, in the post- design survey the instrument used was questionnaire.

  To answer the first question, the writer applied eight stages of instructional design model, which were adapted from Kemp’s and Taba’s models. The stages were (1) conducting needs survey, (2) specifying goals, topics, and general purposes, (3) formulating objectives, (4) selecting and organizing contents, (5) selecting learning activities and resources, (6) designing materials, (7) evaluating materials, and (8) revising materials. To answer the second question, the writer presented Task-Based instructional design materials for the students of SMK YPKK 3 Sleman. The materials consist of eight units. Each unit consists of four sections, namely warming-up, let’s read, language focus, and what have you

  learnt today?

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ABSTRAK

  Wahyuningtyas, Ratri. 2008. Task-Based Instructional Reading Materials for

  

SMK YPKK 3 Sleman . Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program,

Sanata Dharma University.

  Untuk menguasai Bahasa Inggris, siswa harus mempelajari empat ketrampilan, yaitu menyimak, berbicara, membaca, dan menulis. Diantara semua keterampilan tersebut, membaca adalah kunci keberhasilan untuk mempelajari mata pelajaran apapun termasuk Bahasa Inggris. Kemampuan membaca siswa mendukung penguasaan Bahasa Inggris mereka khususnya bagi siswa kelas sebelas SMK YPKK 3 Sleman. Siswa kelas sebelas SMK YPKK 3 Sleman perlu untuk meningkatkan kemampuan membaca karena hal tersebut akan sangat membantu dalam menguasai Bahasa Inggris. Namun, masalah yang mengganggu adalah kurangnya bacaan yang dapat menunjang proses belajar. Oleh karena itu, sebuah penelitian dilaksanakan untuk menanggapi masalah tersebut yang bertujuan untuk merancang materi pembelajaran membaca menggunakan Task- Based untuk siswa kelas sebelas SMK YPKK 3 Sleman.

  Penelitian ini membahas dua masalah. Masalah-masalah tersebut adalah (1) bagaimana materi pembelajaran membaca menggunakan Task-Based untuk siswa kelas sebelas SMK YPKK 3 Sleman dirancang dan (2) bagaimana materi pembelajaran membaca menggunakan Task-Based untuk siswa kelas sebelas SMK YPKK 3 Sleman disajikan. Untuk menjawab kedua pertanyaan tersebut, penulis mengimplementasikan Research and Development (R & D) Method. Namun dalam penelitian ini, penulis hanya mengimplementasikan lima langkah pertama dari R & D Method. Langkah-langkah tersebut adalah (1) researching

  

and collecting information , (2) planning, (3) developing preliminary form of

product , (4) conducting preliminary field-testing, and (5) revising main product.

  Untuk mengumpulkan data yang dibutuhkan, penulis melaksanakan dua jenis survei yaitu pre-design dan post-design survei. Kuesioner digunakan sebagai instrumen pada pre-design dan post design survei, sedangkan interview checklist digunakan pada post-design survei.

  Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, penulis menerapkan delapan langkah dari model instruksional yang diadaptasi dari model Kemp dan Taba. Langkah- langkah tersebut adalah (1) melakukan survei kebutuhan, (2) menentukan tujuan, topik, dan tujuan umum, (3) merumuskan indikator, (4) menyeleksi dan menyusun isi, (5) menyeleksi kegiatan belajar dan sumber belajar, (6) mendesain materi, (7) mengevaluasi rancangan materi, dan (8) merevisi materi. Sedangkan untuk

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  Akhir kata, materi pembelajaran ini diharapkan dapat bermanfaat bagi siswa dan guru Bahasa Inggris SMK YPKK 3 Sleman untuk meningkatkan kemampuan membaca siswa.

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter consists of six parts. The first part is the background of the

  study, which reveals the writer’s reason for conducting the study. The second part is the problem formulation, which conveys the problem that will be discussed in the study. The third part is the problem limitation. This part gives a clear border of the study being discussed. The fourth part is the objectives of the study, which shows the aims of the study. The fifth part is benefits of the study, which reveals the advantages of the study that other researchers may gain through reading the study. The last part is the definition of terms that clarifies the terms used in the study.

A. Background of the Study

  It is no doubt that English becomes an important language. English is used in many aspects of life such as in business, trade, and also communication.

  Nowadays English is taught in all levels of education. It is hoped that through acquainting the students with English since they are young, they will be more familiar with English and they can learn English easily later on.

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  while receptive refers to language directed at the learner (Anderson, as cited in Nunan, 2003: 48).

  Brown (2004: 185) stated that the essential skill for success in all educational context is reading. It can be concluded that among those four skills, reading is the key to learning any kinds of subjects or languages including English. The students’ reading ability contributes a lot to their English mastery. If they can grasp the point of an English passage, they are able to continue their lesson without difficulties. The problem is that not all senior high school students have adequate reading ability to support their English mastery. It really happened in one of the private vocational high schools in Yogyakarta, namely SMK YPKK

  3 Sleman. When the writer taught reading there, students found difficulties in understanding the passage given. The writer realized that it was a serious problem because in National Examination, which is usually taken by the twelfth grade students, the students are required to master reading in order to pass. Based on that reason, the writer intends to increase the students’ reading ability through designing a set of instructional reading materials.

  This design is aimed to enhance the students’ reading ability since it is really important to support their English mastery and later on they will be ready to face National Examination. Through the study, it is hoped that they will have a general

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  of tasks. The students will also be given tasks of basic reading strategies, such as to find the main idea, specific information, and also other strategies that can be used in reading so that they may increase their reading ability.

  Designing the materials is the writer’s further action for the eleventh grade (XI) students of SMK YPKK 3 Sleman. Since the materials try to introduce kinds of National Examination readings, the eleventh grade is considered the most appropriate level. The reason is that the students in this level have more time to prepare themselves for National Examination rather than the twelfth grade students. Preparation is very important since National Examination is to measure whether they master what have they learnt during their three-year study or not.

  Their scores decide whether they pass the National Examination or not. If the students are well prepared, they will gain good scores.

  There are several methods that can be used in learning English. In the study, Task-Based Learning is used. There are two main reasons why Task-Based Learning is used in the study. The first reason comes from the writer’s idea that Task-Based Learning will be beneficial for the students since it will not only increase their academic achievement but also their social skill. The second reason is based on the results of preliminary study conducted by the writer. The results showed that most of the respondents chose Task-Based Learning as the method in

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  The advantages of the method will give better results in the students’ preparation. First, it will increase their social skill. When completing tasks, students gain opportunities to interact with their friends unconsciously. They build a good relationship with their friends and help each other to complete tasks.

  Second, it will increase their academic aspect by doing tasks given. By doing tasks individually, they measure their own understanding of the materials.

  Our education nowadays requires students to master knowledge and also skills which are applicable and beneficial for their future life. Dealing with that, government allows schools to design their own curriculum, called School-Based Curriculum (SBC). As also stated by Board of National Education Standard (Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan, 2006: 5), SBC is an operational curriculum that is arranged and done in each level of education. SBC gives more opportunity for each school to develop their curriculum based on their potency, necessity, needs of the students, and also environment. In the study, the materials are designed in line with the SBC used in SMK YPKK 3 Sleman.

B. Problem Formulation

  The study intends to answer the following questions:

  1. How are Task-Based instructional reading materials for the eleventh grade

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C. Problem Limitation

  There are some limitations in this study. First, the study was about developing materials. The main concern of the study was not to implement or evaluate materials, but it focused on developing materials that facilitated the teaching-learning processes. Second, the study developed materials for reading.

  The writer focused on providing reading materials as a means to increase the students’ reading ability. Third, the study employed Task-Based Learning in designing the materials. Based on the preliminary study, Task-Based Learning was chosen as the method in learning reading. The aim of the method was to increase the students’ ability in English through completing the tasks given. In this study, it was hoped that by completing the tasks given the students would gain improvement in their reading skill and also social skill.

  Fourth, the study was designed for the eleventh grade students of SMK YPKK 3 Sleman. The reason for choosing the eleventh grade students was that they have more time to prepare for National Examination. Fifth, the study was conducted in SMK YPKK 3 Sleman. It was chosen as the setting of the study because the students there needed more opportunities and facilities to learn English especially reading.

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  1. To find out how Task-Based instructional reading materials for the eleventh grade students of SMK YPKK 3 Sleman are designed.

  2. To present Task-Based instructional reading materials for the eleventh grade students of SMK YPKK 3 Sleman.

E. Benefits of the Study

  The study is expected to give positive contribution to English Language Teaching, especially the English teachers, the students, and other researchers.

  The study is expected to encourage Senior High School English teachers to use appropriate method to enhance students’ ability in reading so that the students may have deeper understanding of the passage. It is expected that the study may give more references of teaching-learning method that can be applied in class for the English teachers. It is also hoped that the Senior High School English teachers may broaden their knowledge about English language teaching through the study.

  The study is also expected to give contribution especially to the students of SMK YPKK 3 Sleman and hopefully to other vocational high school students.

  Through the study, the students may increase their reading ability so that they can prepare themselves to face National Examination. Through the study, they can increase their social skill by having more time to interact with their friends while

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  in conducting their research. Through the study, other researchers may gain beneficial information that can be used to support their research.

F. Definition of Terms

  To avoid misconception related to the topic of the study, the writer provides the definition of some terms used in the study. They are:

  1. Instructional Materials According to Gagne and Briggs (1979: 3), “instruction is a set of events which affect learners in such a way that learning is facilitated.” Gagne and Briggs

  (1979: 35) also state that “the purpose of instruction is to promote learning, and many agents (teachers, learners, materials, media) can be employed to accomplish the events of instruction.” In this study, instructional materials are the materials used by the teacher in teaching learning process, which put emphasis on students’ team work to achieve the goals of the course.

  2. Reading Anderson (as cited in Nunan, 2003: 68) states that “reading is a fluent process of readers combining information from a text and their own background knowledge to build meaning.” Reading is an activity in which the readers use their background knowledge in order to understand the passage. In this study, reading

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  3. Task-Based Task-Based is a method of language teaching which emphasizes the task completion to achieve the goal, as defined by Larsen-Freeman (2000: 144) as follows:

  A task-based approach aims to provide learners with a natural context for language use. As learners work to complete a task, they have abundant opportunity to interact. Such interaction is thought to facilitate language acquisition as learners have to work to understand each other and to express their own meaning. By so doing, they have to check to see if they have comprehended correctly and, at times, they have to seek clarification.

  In this study, Task-Based is a method in which learners complete tasks in order to achieve the goals of the course and to measure their understanding about the materials given.

  4. SMK SMK, in English called vocational high school, stands for Sekolah

  

Menengah Kejuruan . In SMK, the students learn business and management,

  mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, hotel and tourism, marketing, and business administration. The length of the study in SMK is three years, which is divided into three grades. Those are tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades. In this study, SMK that becomes the target of the study is SMK YPKK 3 Sleman, in which the students learn business and management. The focus of the study is the eleventh grade students of SMK YPKK 3 Sleman for whom the materials are

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE In this chapter, the writer will discuss two main points, namely theoretical

  description and theoretical framework. Theoretical description consists of discussion about instructional design models, reading, and Task-Based Learning.

  Moreover, in theoretical framework the writer relates the theories with the study.

A. Theoretical Description

1. Instructional Design Models

  In the study, there are two instructional design models that will be used, namely Kemp’s model and Taba’s model.

a. The Nature of Kemp’s Model

  Kemp’s model consists of several important steps. Those are:

1) Defining Goals, Topics, and General Purposes

  Goals derive from three sources: society, students, and subject areas. After establishing the goals, the planner should list the major topics related to the content area. In order to signify what the teacher wants to accomplish in the topic, the teacher uses initial expressions. Those expressions usually express the

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  learning experiences. Furthermore, the teacher can also derive objectives from general purposes.

  2) Finding out Learner Characteristics

  Knowing the learners characteristic is very important so that the teacher can help them to learn in their own pace. There are two factors that should be considered in finding out the learners characteristics; those are academic and social factors. Academic factors include academic background, level of intelligence, number of students, reading level, study habit, grade-point average, scores on standardized achievement and aptitude tests, ability to work alone, motivation for studying the subject, background in the subject or topic, expectations of the course, and vocational and cultural aspirations. Social factors include age, maturity, attention span, special talents, physical and emotional handicaps, relations among students, and socioeconomic situation. Other factors, such as learning conditions and learning styles, should be taken into account in designing process. According to Kemp (1977: 19), learning conditions refer to “groups of factors that can affect a person’s ability to concentrate, absorb, and retain information.”

  3) Specifiying Learning Objectives

  Kemp (1977: 24) states that learning objectives can be categorized into three

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  action verb that will be used in specifying the learning objectives because each verb relates to certain level of objectives.

  4) Organizing Subject Content

  According to Kemp (1977: 44), subject content is “the selection and organizing of the specific knowledge (facts and information), skills (step-by-step procedures, conditions, and requirements), and attitudinal factors of any topics.” Subject content must be related to the objectives and the learners’ needs. Subject contents support the objectives. In other words, the objectives are what should be attained by the subject content. Instead of using textbook, the planner should consider other learning sources, such as articles, phamplets, films, or their own experiences as other sources of subject content.

  5) Developing Pre-assessment

  After specifying the objectives and the subject content, it is time for the planner to check whether the students are ready to study the topic and whether they have already mastered some of the stated objectives (Kemp, 1977: 50). To answer those two questions, a test is needed. There are two kinds of tests, namely prerequisite testing and pretesting. Prerequisite testing aims to gain information whether the students have appropriate preparation for the topic. The results of prerequisite testing will let the teacher know who are ready to learn the topic, who

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  questions and problems from the evaluation instruments you are developing in the plan” (Kemp, 1977: 51).

  6) Planning the Teaching/Learning Activities and Resources

  The planner should determine the most effective and efficient methods and then select the materials. There are several commonly used methods, namely presentation, individual learning, and teacher-students interaction. The planner should also select the media to support teaching-learning activity. According to Kemp (1977: 74), there are three reasons why selecting media is complicated. First, there are many audiovisual resources from which to choose. Second, there are no clearcut guidelines for making a selection. Third, few educators have had broad enough experiences with the resources available to have a sound basis for selecting an appropriate medium or combination of media for communicating content or providing students experiences, in terms of an objective within the chosen teaching/learning pattern.

  7) Organizing Support Services

  Support services include fund/budget, facilities, equipment, time, and schedule. The planner should organize support services carefully. Budget or funds can be divided into two sections. Those are budget during development, which covers all budget that the planner needed during the preparation of the program,

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8) Evaluating Students’ Achievement

  In order to measure students’ achievement, the teacher should determine standards of achievement. The measurement can be in the form of evaluation.

  There are two kinds of evaluation, namely formative and summative evaluation. Formative evaluation takes place during development and tryouts, while summative evaluation takes place at the end of the course. Evaluation also refers to the evaluation of the program. It aims to know how well the program serves the objectives. According to Kemp (1977: 98), there are several ways to evaluate the developed program, namely (1) test results, (2) reactions from students, (3) observations of students at work, and (4) suggestions from colleagues. The stages of Kemp’s model are presented in Figure 2.1.

  Goals, Topics, and General

Purposes

Learners

  Evaluation Characteristics Revise

  Learning Support Services Objectives Teaching/ Learning Subject Content Activities and

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b. The Nature of Taba’s Model

  Taba’s model consists of eight steps. Those are:

  1) Diagnosing Needs

  Taba (1962: 347) states that “the diagnosis which precedes the planning of a unit is a fairly general analysis of problems, conditions, and difficulties.” The results will give influence in deciding contents, emphasis, and objectives for learning experiences. Through diagnosing needs, the planner may gain information about the students’ problems in learning so that s/he will be able to solve them.

  2) Formulating Specific Objectives

  The results of diagnosis needs will provide information about which objectives or aspects need more attention. According to Taba (1962: 350), objectives should include several important points. Those are (1) concepts or ideas to be learned, (2) attitudes, sensitivities, and feelings to be developed, (3) ways of thinking to be reinforced, strengthened, or initiated, and (4) habits and skills to be mastered. Moreover, specific objectives can be translated from the general objectives of the school.

  3) Selecting Content

  The next step of Taba’s model is to select content. Taba (1962: 352) states

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  4) Organizing Content

  After selecting the content, the planner needs to arrange it in sequential order starting from the easy one. The planner should pay attention to the arrangement of the topics, ideas, and content samples so that there is a clear movement from the known to unknown and from the easy one to the difficult one.

  The arrangement of the content should facilitate learners to achieve the objectives.

  5) Selecting Learning Experiences

  According to Taba (1962: 362), objectives should be implemented through appropriate learning activities. Those activities should help students to develop and practice all that they are supposed to learn. In selecting the learning experiences for each idea and its content sample, the planner should consider that each should serve some definite function. Taba (1962: 364) also adds that “to translate the criteria for effective learning experiences into an actual program, it is important, first, to visualize what students need to do or experince in order to acquire certain behavioral competencies and what the order of these experiences should be.”

  6) Organizing Learning Experiences

  The sequence of learning experiences consists of three main stages, namely introductory, opening up, and orientation. Selected learning experiences should be

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  7) Evaluating

  Taba (1962: 377) states that “evaluation consists of determining the objectives, the diagnosis, or the establishment of baselines for learning and appraising progress and changes.” Evaluation can be used to check the learners’ understanding. Furthermore, evaluation will be a continuous diagnosis if it is accompanied by comparison or results.

  8) Checking for Balance and Sequence

  Checking the overall consistency of the materials is needed in order to avoid out of the track materials. There is a need to check the contents organization, time allocation, and also the sequence of the ideas and contents. By doing so, the planner may know whether the materials match the objectives stated before or not.

  2. Reading

a. The Nature of Reading

  Reading is regarded as receptive skill, where the readers receive information from the text given. Readers do not produce something like what is required in speaking or writing. Meanwhile, reading is a process to understand what is being read.

  According to Anderson as cited by Nunan (2003: 68), “reading is a fluent process of readers combining information from a text and their own background

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b. Principles for Teaching Reading

  Anderson (as cited in Nunan, 2003: 74-78) also states that there are eight principles of teaching reading. Those are:

  1) Exploit the Reader’s Background Knowledge

  Background knowledge includes experiences that bring readers to the text, such as life experience and educational experience. Background knowledge gives big influence in leading readers to the text and improving readers’ reading comprehension. To enhance readers’ reading comprehension, the teacher has to activate their background knowledge by setting goals, asking questions, making prediction, and teaching text structure.

  2) Build a Strong Vocabulary Base

  Vocabulary is the basic need for the readers to obtain the meaning of English words or even passage. In order to understand the text, the readers need to know vocabularies related to the text. If the readers have strong vocabulary base, it will be easier for them to understand the text.

  3) Teach for Comprehension

  The main part of reading process is comprehension. However, the teacher needs to teach comprehension and then monitor it. Teaching comprehension relates to the readers’ ability to discuss with the teacher or friends what strategies

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  does not only focus on the accuracy but also fluency. The teacher also has to teach students to reduce their dependence on dictionary. The students have to spend more time analyzing the content and discussing it with their friends.

  5) Teach Reading Strategies

  In order to be successful readers, the readers have to know strategies of reading itself. However, knowing the strategies is not enough. They have to know how to use and integrate strategies in their reading process.

  6) Encourage Readers to Transform Strategies into Skills

  According to Anderson (as cited in Nunan, 2003: 77), “strategies can be defined as conscious actions that learners take to achieve desired goals or objectives, while a skill is a strategy that has become automatic.” Readers should be introduced to reading strategies in their reading process. When they use strategies unconsciously, they move strategies into skill.

  7) Build Assessment and Evaluation into Your Teaching

  Assessment and evaluation can be used to measure the students’ progress in their reading class. The assessment can be both qualitative and quantitative.

  Qualitative assessment includes information from reading comprehension test and reading rate data. Quantitative assessment includes information from reading journal responses, reading interest surveys, and responses to reading strategy

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8) Strive for Continuous Improvement as a Reading Teacher

  Reading teacher should view themselves as facilitators and help the readers to find what works best. The teacher needs to understand the nature of reading process so that they can help the readers to understand the text.

c. Models of Reading Process

  According to Anderson (as cited in Nunan, 2003: 70-72), there are three models of reading:

  1) Bottom-up Model

  Bottom-up model requires the readers to start the reading process from the very basic unit. This model starts from the fundamental basic of sound and letter recognition, and morpheme. Then, the readers move to the word recognition, sentence, and finally comes to the large one.

  2) Top-down Model

  In top-down model, the readers start with their own background knowledge in order to obtain the meaning from the text given. Top-down model emphasizes the understanding of the readers toward the text given. The readers’ background knowledge contributes to their understanding of the given text.

  3) Interactive Model

  This model integrates both bottom-up and top-down models. In interactive

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d. Access to Content

  According to Wallace (1992: 86), there are some ways to help learners to relate their existing knowledge to the text the learners are going to read. Those activities are:

  1) Pre-reading Activities

  Pre-reading activities consist of activities that provide learners with questions, which require learners to find the answers from the text. The activities also facilitate learners with tasks to prepare learners for linguistic, cultural or conceptual difficulties and provide them with vocabulary tasks. These activities function as a gate to enter the world that is presented in the text.

  2) While-reading Activities

  The aim of while-reading is to encourage learners to be flexible, active, and reflective readers. A text, the main concern of reading, will be given to learners in this phase. Learners will also be given a set of tasks in order to check the learners’ understanding toward the text being read.

  3) Post-reading Activities

  Most of the post-reading activities consist of comprehension questions which follow a text. Post-reading activities need to be motivated by the genre, the context of learning, and learners’ purpose. Some texts tend to have follow-up