DESIGNING ENGLISH WRITING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS USING GENRE - BASED APPROACH FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL GRADE XI A THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

  DESIGNING ENGLISH WRITING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS USING GENRE - BASED APPROACH FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL GRADE XI A THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

  By Natalia Debby Indartiningtyas Student Number: 06 1214 094

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2011

  DESIGNING ENGLISH WRITING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS USING GENRE - BASED APPROACH FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL GRADE XI A THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

  By Natalia Debby Indartiningtyas Student Number: 06 1214 094

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2011

  everything will be okay in the end if it is not okay, it’s not the end

I dedicated this thesis to

My lovely parents and sister

  

All family

My beloved one

All friends

  

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY

  I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work or parts of the work of other person, except those cited in the quotations and the references, as a scientific paper should.

  th

  Yogyakarta, January 18 , 2011 The Writer

  Natalia Debby Indartiningtyas 06 1214 094

  

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIK

  Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama : Natalia Debby Indartiningtyas Nomor Mahasiswa : 06 1214 094

  Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

  

DESIGNING ENGLISH WRITING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

USING GENRE - BASED APPROACH

FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL GRADE XI

  Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin ataupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis. Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta Pada tanggal: 18 Januari 2011 Yang menyatakan Natalia Debby Indartiningtyas

  

ABSTRACT

  Indartiningtyas, Natalia Debby. 2010. Designing English Writing Instructional

Materials Using Genre – Based Approach for Senior High School Grade XI.

Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.

  Writing text is one of the basic competences of writing skill for senior high school grade XI. Therefore, writing is an important skill that students should master. From the observation, it was found that writing is considered as a difficult skill for students. The students have difficulties in arranging their ideas, organizing the structure, employing the correct grammar, and choosing the appropriate vocabulary. An appropriate approach is needed to solve the students’ difficulties. Genre – Based Approach provides step by step procedures in writing. This approach guides students to produce a piece of writing.

  This study was conducted to design English writing instructional materials using Genre – Based Approach for the eleventh grade students of SMA

  

N 1 Depok. This study was concerned with two formulated problems, which are,

  1) How are English writing instructional materials based on genre – approach for eleventh grade students of SMA N 1 Depok designed? and 2) What do English writing instructional materials based on genre – approach for eleventh grade students of SMA N 1 Depok look like?

  In answering the first problem formulation, the study adapted Kemp’s and Yalden’s Instructional Design Model and employed R & D (Research and Development) Model. There are five steps applied in this study. The steps were: (1) Research and Information Collecting. Needs survey was conducted to obtain information about students’ abilities, interest, and difficulties. (2) Planning. This step included determining goals, topics, general purposes, and learning objectives. (3) Develop Preliminary Form of Product. In this step, the subject contents of the designed materials were classified. This step was also aimed at choosing teaching/ learning activities/ resources. (4) Preliminary Field Testing. An evaluation was conducted to obtain the comments, judgments, and suggestions toward the designed materials. (5) Main Product Revision. The evaluation data of the preliminary field testing was used as the basis of product revision. The result of the descriptive statistic indicated that the average of agree statements of the designed materials was 88.75%. It is concluded that the designed materials are suitable and acceptable to be used in the school.

  In answering the second problem formulation, this study presented the final version of the designed materials. It consists of eight units. Each unit is divided into five sections, namely, (1) Building the Context, (2) Modelling and Deconstructing the Text, (3) Joint Construction of the Text, (4) Independent Construction of the Text, and (5) Linking Related Text.

  Hopefully, these designed materials can be applied in the school to improve students’ ability in writing. Moreover, it can encourage other researchers to conduct a further study on other aspects of this study.

  Keywords: design, writing, material, genre – based approach

  

ABSTRAK

  Indartiningtyas, Natalia Debby. 2010. Designing English Writing Instructional

Materials Using Genre – Based Approach for Senior High School Grade XI.

Yogyakarta: Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

  Menulis teks adalah salah satu kompetensi dasar dalam kemampuan menulis untuk siswa kelas XI sekolah menengah atas. Oleh karena itu, menulis merupakan kemampuan yang harus dikuasai. Dari hasil pengamatan, diketahui bahwa siswa mengganggap menulis Bahasa Inggris adalah hal yang sulit. Siswa mengalami kesulitan dalam merangkai gagasan, menyusun langkah – langkah retorika, menggunakan tata bahasa, dan kosakata yang benar. Sebuah strategi diperlukan untuk mengatasi kesulitan siswa dalam menulis Bahasa Inggris. Genre

• – Based Approach menyajikan langkah – langkah dalam menulis. Strategi ini memandu siswa untuk mengarang sebuah karangan.

  Studi ini dilaksanakan untuk merancang materi pembelajaran writing menggunakan Genre – Based Approach untuk siswa kelas XI SMA N 1 Depok. Studi ini mengemukakan dua pertanyaan, 1) Bagaimana materi pembelajaran

  

writing berdasarkan Genre – Based Approach untuk siswa kelas XI SMA N 1

  Depok dirancang? dan 2) Bagaimanakah bentuk materi materi pembelajaran

  

writing berdasarkan Genre – Based Approach untuk siswa kelas XI SMA N 1

  Depok? Dalam menjawab pertanyaan pertama, studi ini mengadaptasi model perancangan dari Kemp dan Yalden dan juga menerapkan metode R & D (metode penelitian dan pengembangan). Ada lima tahap dalam studi ini. Tahap –tahap tersebut adalah: (1) Penelitia dan Pengumpulan Informasi. Survei kebutuhan dilakukan untuk mengumpulkan informasi mengenai kemampuan, minat, dan kesulitan siswa. (2) Perencanaan. Tahap ini ditujukan untuk menentukan tujuan, khusus, topik, tujuan umum, dan tujuan belajar. (3) Pengembangan Bentuk Awal Produk. Dalam tahap ini, isi materi, kegiatan pembelajaran, dan sumber – sumbernya ditentukan. (4) Pengujian Awal di Lapangan. Evaluasi dilaksanakan untuk mendapatkan komentar, penilaian, dan masukan berkaitan dengan materi yang dirancang. (5) Perbaikan Produk Utama. Data evaluasi digunakan sebagai dasar untuk memperbaiki produk utama. Hasil perhitungan menunjukkan bahwa rata – rata pernyataan setuju terhadap materi yang dirancang adalah 88,75%.

  Dengan demikian, dapat disimpulkan bahwa materi ini dapat diterima dan digunakan di sekolah.

  Dalam menjawab pertanyaan kedua, studi ini menyajikan hasil akhir dari materi. Materi terdiri dari delapan unit. Setiap unit terbagi atas lima bagian yaitu, (1) Building the Context, (2) Modelling and Deconstructing the Text, (3) Joint

  

Construction of the Text , (4) Independent Construction of the Text, dan (5)

Linking Related Text .

  Materi ini diharapkan dapat diterapkan di sekolah untuk meningkatkan kemampuan siswa dalam menulis dan dapat mendorong peneliti lain untuk mengadakan penelitian lebih lanjut tentang aspek lain dalam studi ini.

  Kata kunci: merancang, menulis, materi, genre – based approach

  

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

  Firstly, I would like to express my greatest gratitude and praise to the

  

Almighty Jesus Christ for His blessing and guidance during the process of

completing my thesis. God makes everything happens at the right time.

  My sincere gratitude and honor go to my sponsor, C. Tutyandari, S.Pd.,

  

M.Pd., for always giving me correction, guidance, courage, and patience during

  my thesis accomplishment. Special appreciation also goes to all lecturers of English Education Study Program for teaching and guiding me during my study in Sanata Dharma University. My great thank goes to PBI staff, mbak Dani and mbak Tari, for giving me nice services.

  I deliver my best gratitude to the English teachers of SMA N 1 Depok,

  

Priyanta Ari Nugraha, S.Pd. and Sri Suryanti, S.Pd., for their willingness to

  give valuable suggestions for my designed materials. I also address my thanks to the eleventh grade students of SMA N 1 Depok 2009/2010 for their help in filling questionnaires. Moreover, I sincerely thank Christina Kristiyani, S.Pd.,

  

M.Pd., Christina Lhaksmita Anandari, S.Pd., M.Ed., and Drs. JB. Gunawan,

M.A., for their suggestions, comments, and criticisms toward my designed

  materials.

  My deepest gratitude is addressed to my beloved parents, Valentinus

  

Sutarno and Christina Tyasminingsih. I thank them for their prayer, love,

  support, and patience they have given to me. The same gratitude also goes to my lovely sister, Veronica Verlina W., A.Md. I thank her for her love, advice, support.

  With all my love, I give my thanks to B. Anom Dwi Nugroho, S.Sn., for his love and being my everything. I thank him for his care, patience, support, and laugh during all this time. The same appreciation also goes to Gergunung family, for their love and warmth.

  I never forget my magnificent friends in PBI 2006: Yuki, Deinza, Ritong,

Fajar, Mbok Sus, Pyut2, Vita, Adey, Evi, Yeyen, Lance, Adven, and Rizky.

  These people always give me support and encourage me to accomplish my thesis. They have given me valuable inputs to improve my thesis. I also thank them for all happy and sad moments we have shared during my study in Sanata Dharma University.

  In addition, I am very grateful to my ex-boarding house friends: mbak

  

Anggie, mbak Vita, Galih, and Novi. I thank them for the unforgettable moments

we have spent together.

  My thanks also go to all colleagues in SD N 3 Glodogan and TK/ KB

  

Cahaya Intan , especially: mbak Frida, mbak Nia, mbak Peti, mbak Lia, and

mbak Tina. I thank them for giving me great opportunity to develop myself.

  Last but not least, I would also express my appreciation to those who have given me a hand, whom I have not mentioned. May God bless us forever.

  Natalia Debby Indartiningtyas

  

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE .................................................................................................... ii

APPROVAL PAGES ........................................................................................ iii

DEDICATION PAGE ....................................................................................... iv

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ............................................... v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ......................... vi

ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................... vii

ABSTRAK ........................................................................................................... viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................. ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................. xi

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................ xiii

LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................... xiv

LIST OF APPENDICES .................................................................................. xv

  

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 1

A. Research Background........................................................................ 1 B. Problem Formulation ........................................................................ 4 C. Problem Limitation ........................................................................... 4 D. Research Objectives .......................................................................... 4 E. Research Benefits .............................................................................. 5 F. Definition of Terms ........................................................................... 6

CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ............................ 8

A. Theoretical Description ..................................................................... 8

  1. School Based Curriculum ..................................................... 8

  2. Kemp’s Instructional Design Model ..................................... 9

  3. Yalden’s Instructional Design Model ................................. 15

  4. Theory of Writing ................................................................. 17

  5. Teaching Writing Skill .......................................................... 19

  6. Genre – Based Writing .......................................................... 20

  7. The Teaching/ Learning Cycle .............................................. 21

  B. Theoretical Framework ..................................................................... 23

  

CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY ............................................................. 28

A. Research Method ............................................................................ 28 B. Research Participants ..................................................................... 32 C. Research Instruments ..................................................................... 33 D. Data Gathering Technique ............................................................. 35 E. Data Analysis Technique ............................................................... 36 F. Research Procedure ........................................................................ 39

CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................. 40

A. Research Results ............................................................................ 40 B. Discussion of the Designed Materials ............................................ 59

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS .............................. 61

A. Conclusion ..................................................................................... 61 B. Suggestions .................................................................................... 63

REFERENCES ............................................................................................... 64

APPENDICES ................................................................................................ 66

  

LIST OF TABLES

  Table Page

  3.1 The Blueprint of Participants’ Opinion on the Genre – Based Approach .... 37

  3.2 The Blueprint of Participants’ Opinion on the Designed Materials .............. 38

  4.1 The Competence Standards and Basic Competencies of the Designed Materials ........................................................................................................ 45

  4.2 Topics ............................................................................................................ 46

  4.3 Indicators ...................................................................................................... 47

  4.4 The Description of the Evaluators................................................................. 53

  4.5 The Descriptive Statistics of the Evaluators’ Opinion .................................. 54

  

LIST OF FIGURES

  Figure Page

  2.1 Kemp’s Model ............................................................................................... 14

  2.2 Yalden’s Model ............................................................................................. 15

  2.3 Teaching/ Learning Cycle ............................................................................. 22

  3.1 R & D Cycle and the Researcher’s Model .................................................... 31

  LIST OF APPENDICES

  Appendices Page

  Appendices A

  1. Permission Letter from Sanata Dharma University ..............................66

  2. Permission Letter from BAPPEDA ........................................................67

  3. Official Statement Letter from SMA Negeri 1 Depok ............................68 Appendices B

  1. Questionnaire on Research and Information Collecting ...................... 69

  2. Interview Guideline on Research and Information Collecting ............ 72

  3. The Questionnaire Result on Research and Information Collecting .... 73

  4. The Interview Result on Research and Information Collecting ........... 75 Appendices C

  1. Questionnaire on Preliminary Field Testing ........................................ 78

  2. Gambaran Umum ................................................................................. 81

  3. General Description ............................................................................. 84

  4. The Result of Questionnaire on Preliminary Field Testing ................. 87

  5. Permission Letter for Distributing Questionnaire of Preliminary Field Testing ........................................................................................ 88

  Appendices D

  1. Indicators .............................................................................................. 89

  2. Lesson Plans ......................................................................................... 92

  3. Syllabus ................................................................................................ 123

  4. The Designed Materials ....................................................................... 144

  5. The Teacher’s Guideline ...................................................................... 223

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter is divided into six parts. The first part is the research

  background, which reveals the reasons of conducting this study. The second part is the problem formulation, which conveys the problems that will be discussed.

  The third part is the problem limitation. This part gives a clear border of the study. The fourth part is the research objectives, which shows the aim of the study. The fifth part is the research benefits. This part reveals the advantages of the study.

  The last part is definition of terms that clarifies the terms used in the study.

A. Research Background

  Writing is one of the language skills that are used as materials for English Language Teaching (ELT). It is an important skill that students should master. In the other hand, writing as language production is considered as a complex skill for language learners, as said by Nunan (1999: 271), “in terms of skills, producing a coherent, fluent, extended piece of writing is probably the most difficult thing there is to do in language”. A teacher functions as a facilitator of teaching learning activities should find an appropriate approach to teach writing. As a result, their students will not find any difficulties.

  Recently, Indonesia embraces the School Based Curriculum (KTSP). School Based Curriculum (2006 Curriculum) is an operational curriculum which is arranged and held by the school/ education institution (Haryati, 2008:1). It is arranged based on the content standard, graduate competence standard, and

  2 curriculum developing guidance by The Committee of Education National Standard or Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan (BNSP).

  Writing text is one of the basic competences of writing skill for senior high school grade XI of 2006 Curriculum. It is stated in the competence standard (6) at the end of the course, the students are able to reveal the meaning of short functional text and simple essay report, narrative, analytical exposition in daily context and competence standard (12) at the end of the course, the students are able to reveal the meaning of short functional text and simple essay narrative, spoof, dan hortatory exposition in daily context.

  During an English practice teaching in SMA N 1 Depok, the writer found out that the students have a poor ability in English Writing. The major problem in writing in SMA N 1 Depok is that the students often have no idea about what they are going to write. The other is the students have difficulties in integrating ideas and organizing the structure properly. They also have difficulties in choosing appropriate vocabulary and employing the correct grammar rules. Those difficulties impact on their writing product. They have poor writing product. An approach to teach writing is needed since the students have difficulties in writing.

  The approach needed is an approach which engages students in writing. It is better for teachers to guide students using step by step procedure in writing so that the students could produce a good piece of writing that is really theirs.

  Some experts propose some theories of teaching writing. One of them is Hyland. According to Hyland, there are six theories of teaching writing. These theories are classified based on the focus of the writing. Teaching writing can

  3 focus on the language structures, text functions, creative expression, the writing process, content, and genre (Hyland, 2003: 3-22).

  Genre approach is an approach that could overcome difficulties that students face in writing. There is a relationship between language and its social function. A language has function to express meaning. Therefore, each piece of writing that conveys meaning has its own purpose. This is called language used to accomplish our goal. In order to reach a goal, it is important to produce a piece of writing using steps. Genre approach employs a number of stages. It is called as the teaching/ learning cycle. The teaching/ learning cycle designed to gain the independent text producing. It means that the students can compose their own text through the teaching/ learning cycle.

  “Genres are social processes because members of a culture interact to achieve them; they are goal-oriented because they have evolved to achieve things; and staged because meanings are made in steps and it usually takes writers more than one step to reach their goals. By setting out the stages, or moves, of valued genres, teachers can provide students with an explicit grammar of linguistic choices, both within and beyond the sentence to produce texts that seem well- performed and appropriate to readers.” (Hyland, 2003: 19)

  The teaching/ learning cycle consists of five stages. The stages involve Building the Context, Modelling and Deconstructing the Text, Joint Construction of the Text, Independent Construction of the Text, and Linking Related Text.

  Each stage of the teaching/ learning cycle has various activities that help students in composing a well-organized writing.

  There are two reasons of choosing the students of eleventh grade of senior high school as the participants of this study. First, the writer found the problem of writing difficulties during the English practice teaching in eleventh

  4 grade of senior high school. Second, genre-based approach is a continuous and complex activity. Therefore, it is better to be applied to the students who have got the basic knowledge of English.

  B. Problem Formulation

  The researcher puts forward problem statements as follows:

  1. How are English writing instructional materials based on genre approach for eleventh grade students of SMA N 1 Depok designed?

  2. What do English writing instructional materials based on genre approach for eleventh grade students of SMA N 1 Depok look like?

  C. Problem Limitation

  In order to make the study specific, there are some limitations in this study. First, this study is about developing materials. The main focus is to develop materials that facilitate the teaching learning processes, not to implement or even to evaluate it. Second, the study concerns with the genre-based approach. The genre-based approach gives step by step procedure which guides students in writing. Third, the study is designed for eleventh grade students of SMA N 1 Depok.

  D. Research Objectives

  Considering the problems stated in the problem formulation, there are two main objectives of the study. These objectives are presented as follows:

  5

  1. The study describes how English writing instructional materials based on genre approach for eleventh grade students of SMA N 1 Depok are designed.

  2. The study presents the designed English writing instructional materials based on genre approach for eleventh grade students of SMA N 1 Depok .

E. Research Benefits

  An instructional material using genre based approach gives activities which guide students in composing a composition. The designed materials might encourage students to write using step by step procedure. The study is expected to be useful for English Language Teaching, especially, for students, teachers, and the other researchers.

  1. For students This study provides writing materials which allow students to write

  English composition using genre – based approach. Through these designed materials, the students might find no more difficulties in writing a composition.

  The materials motivate students in writing composition by interacting with the teacher and their friends. Therefore, the students can be more successful in writing. Furthermore, it will encourage students to have systematic thinking and critical thinking.

  2. For English teachers This study provides the benefits of teaching writing based on the genre approach for the eleventh grade students of senior high school. By reading this study, the English teacher may have more references of teaching-learning method

  6 that can be applied in writing class. The English teacher can also broaden their knowledge of English language teaching through this study.

  3. For the other researchers This study can be used as a reference to conduct a research and write scientific paper related to this study. It also gives description about designing instructional materials based on genre approach in teaching English writing for eleventh grade students of senior high school. Through this study, the researcher can gain essential information that can be used to support their study.

F. Definition of Terms

  This section presents some key words used in this study. In order to avoid different concept of the key words, here, the related terms are discussed.

  1. Instructional material According to Briggs and Gagne (1979: 3), instruction is a set of events which affect the learner in such a way that learning is facilitated. Further,

  Savignon (1997: 132) states that a set of instructional materials can be resources in pursuing the language activities at hand. In this study, instructional material refers to a set of units that are used by teachers or instructors as the supplementary materials in the teaching-learning processes in order to develop students’ writing skill in English.

  2. Genre – Based Approach Kim (n.d) as cited in Byram (2004: 234) stated that the genre approach as a framework for language instruction based on examples of a particular genre.

  Further, Kim suggests that the genre framework support students’ writing with

  7 generalized, systematic guiding principles about how to produce meaningful passages. In this study, genre-based approach refers to an approach of teaching writing that focuses on the step by step procedure to encourage students to produce a well-performed writing.

  3. Eleventh grade students of senior high school In Indonesia, eleventh grade students are group of students about 16-17 years old. Grade is a school level where students in the same age gather. The eleventh grade is the second phase of senior high school. In this study, eleventh grade students are group of students’ age between sixteen up to seventeen years old who are now learning in the eleventh grade of SMA N 1 Depok for whom the materials are designed.

  8 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

  There are two major points that will be discussed in this chapter. The first is theoretical description of related theories to the study. The second one is the theoretical framework that would be used as the guideline to design the materials.

A. Theoretical Description

  There are six topics to discuss in this section. They are School Based Curriculum, Kemp’s Instructional Design Model, Yalden’s Instructional Design Model, Theory of Writing, Teaching Writing Skill, Genre-Based Approach, and Teaching/ Learning Cycle.

1. School Based Curriculum

  Haryati (2008: 1) defines curriculum as a set of plans and rules concern about aims, content, materials, and strategy in teaching as the direction to conduct teaching-learning activities to reach certain education purpose. Further she stated that School Based Curriculum develops by referring to the content standard, graduate competence standard, and the curriculum developing guidance by The Committee Education National Standard (2008: 1).

  There are seven principles that should be considered in developing School Based Curriculum (Haryati, 2008: 1-2). They are (1) oriented in student’s potential, development, needs, and importance, (2) varied and integrated, (3) responsive to science, technology, and art, (4) relevant to life needs, (5) general

  9 and continued, (6) long life education, and (7) balance between national and local needs.

  Based on Government Regulation or Peraturan Pemerintah (PP) No. 19/2005, eight Education National Standard or Standar Nasional Pendidikan

  

(SNP) should be carried out to implement School Based Curriculum. They are (1)

  content standard, (2) process standard, (3) graduate competence standard, (4) educator standard, (5) equipment standard, (6) management standard, (7) funding standard, and (8) education assessment standard

  In School Based Curriculum, students are positioned as the subject of the education, not merely as the object. Therefore, the students play important role in the teaching-learning process. The students are more dominant than the teacher. In this curriculum, a teacher functions as the facilitator in teaching-learning process.

  The students have their own potency to be developed. Students’ potency will grow if they have freedom and opportunity to think independently.

2. Kemp’s Instructional Design Model

  As presented by Kemp (1997: 8), there are three essential elements of instructional technology. The first is objectives. It is related to what must be learned. The second is activities and resources. It is about what procedures and resources will work best to reach the desired learning levels. The last is evaluation. It is related to how we will know when the required learning has taken place. The instructional design can be applied on any education level. It can be treated to single topics, to units, and then to the whole courses.

  10 To obtain these three essential elements, Kemp offers eight stages of the plan. The explanation of the eight stages is as follows:

  Step 1. Defining Goals, Topics, and General Purposes

  All school systems have broad goals. The goals may be derived from society, students, and subject areas. After defining goals, the major topics which would be treated in the content area are then listed. Afterwards, teacher should list the topics. It can be sequenced according to a logical order or according to their own subject preferences or teaching experiences. How many topics should be chosen depend on many factors such as learner characteristic, time allocation, budget, facilities, resources, etc. General purposes are what students are generally expected to learn as a result of instruction (Kemp, 1997: 13). The teacher expresses explicitly the general purposes from chosen topics.

  Step 2. Finding Out the Learner Characteristics

  It is essential to obtain information about the learners’ capabilities, needs, and interest. Learner characteristic would affect the selection of the topics, what depth each topic is discussed, the choice and the sequencing of objectives, and the learning activities. There are two factors that can be considered in finding out the learner characteristics namely academic and social factors. Academic factors include the number of students, the academic background, the grade point average, the level of intelligence, the reading level, the scores on standardized achievement and aptitude test, the study habits, the ability to work alone, the background in the subject or topic, the motivation for studying the subject, the expectations of the course, the vocational and the cultural aspirations. While the

  11 social factors are the age, the maturity, the attention span, the special talents, the physical and emotional handicaps, the relation among students, and the socioeconomic situation. The other factors according to Kemp are the learning condition and learning style. As stated by Kemp, learning conditions refer to groups of factors that can affect a person’s ability to concentrate, absorb, and retain information (Kemp, 1997: 19). Each student has certain method of learning that is more effective than others. It is called as learning styles.

  Step 3. Specifying Learning Objectives

  Each learning process expects performance and achievement levels that should be achieved in the end of the process. Those performance and achievement levels are stated in the measurable objectives. Kemp stated that objectives can be categorized into three categories. They are cognitive, psychomotor, and affective.

  From those three categories, cognitive domain is mostly applied in educational programs. Cognitive domain includes objective knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. In planning process, an instructional designer should consider the action verbs that are stated in specifying the learning objective because each action verb relates to certain categories of objective.

  Step 4. Organizing Subject Content Subject content has a close relation to the objectives and students’ needs.

  Therefore, it can be derived from the objectives and vice versa. In organizing the subject content, the instructional designer can apply the categories of learning

  12 behavior identified by Gagne (Kemp, 1997: 44). Those are facts, concepts, principles, and problem.

  Step 5. Developing Pre - Assessments

  Pre – assessments answer questions of what students has acquired the necessary prerequisites for studying the topic and what students may have already mastered about the subject to be studied (Kemp, 1997: 51). There are two kinds of test that can help the material designer answers those two questions, namely prerequisite testing and pretesting. Prerequisite testing aims at obtaining information whether the students have appropriate background for the topic. The result of the prerequisite testing lets the designer know which students are ready for the topic, which one need remedial, and which are not ready yet. Therefore, the designer should start the topic at the low level of the students. The second one, pretesting, aims at obtaining information about which objectives that students have gained.

  Step 6. Planning Teaching/ Learning Activities, Resources

  According to Kemp, we must determine the most efficient and effective methods and then select materials to provide learning experiences that will utilize the content associated with each objective (1997: 55). There are three basic methods of teaching and learning namely presentation to a group, individualized learning, and teacher–student interaction. In presentation to a group, the teacher or student tells, shows, demonstrates, dramatizes, or presents the topic to the others.

  Individualized learning gives opportunity for individuals to work for themselves. In the interaction teaching/ learning pattern, teachers and students – or students

  13 themselves – work together in small groups to discuss, question, pursue problems cooperatively, and report (Kemp, 1997: 70). The planner then selects media to support the teaching / learning activities. Selecting media is not an easy work. It is because of three reasons (Kemp, 1997: 74). First, there are many audiovisual resources. Second, there are no clear guidelines for selecting media. The last one is just few educators have had enough experience with the resources.

  Step 7. Organizing Support Services

  Support services include funds, facilities, equipment, time, schedule, and coordinating with other activities. The planner should organize those things carefully. Fund can be categorized into two sections, namely fund during development and fund during implementation. Fund during development covers all budgets that the designer needs during the preparation of the program. In the other hand, fund during implementation covers all budgets needed when the designer implements the program. Facilities include room where the program takes place. The choice of the equipment usually depends on the materials applied. The time and schedule are the most difficult element. Coordinating and communicating with others can develop understanding and maintain good feelings.

  Step 8. Evaluating Students’ Achievement

  Evaluation is one way to measure the outcomes of the teaching/ learning process relating to the objectives stated in the previous step. There are two kinds of evaluation, namely formative and summative evaluation. Formative evaluation takes place during the program, while summative evaluation takes place at the end

  14 of the program. Both feedbacks from the formative and summative evaluation should be used for revising and improving any parts of the instructional plan that need it (Kemp, 1997: 99).

  The steps of Kemp’s model are represented in Figure 2.1:

  

Goals,

topics, and

general

purposes

  Learner Characteristics

  Evaluation Learning Support

  Revise Objectives Services Teaching/

  Subject Learning Content Activities,

  Resources Pre- Assessment

Figure 2.1 Kemp’s Model (Taken from Kemp, 1977: 9)

  Kemp states that this is a flexible process. The material designer can start from any stage that he/ she is ready to do. The sequence and order are the designer’s choice. However, it is recommended that the designer should treat most of the eight to get the desired result. Kemp has conveyed important information in constructing instructional material. Nonetheless, a researcher will

  15 not stick on one kind of instructional design model. The next model of instructional design is Yalden’s model.

3. Yalden’s Instructional Design Model

  Yalden considers seven stages in designing materials. The stages will be described in the following figure. _Development

  

Need Description Selection of Production of Production of Evaluation

_and Survey of Purpose Development Proto Syllabus Pedagogical _{Implementation} Syllabus Type Syllabus _{of Classroom Procedure}

Figure 2.2 Yalden’s Model (Taken from Yalden, 1987: 88)

  There are seven stages in planning instructional materials according to Janice Yalden (1987). The seven stages will be elaborated in the following explanation.

  Stage 1. Needs Survey

  The reason for all of information gathering according to Yalden is to understand as much about the learners as possible prior to the beginning of the program, in order to establish realistic and acceptable objectives (1987: 101). The need survey can include the learner’s desires or wants. This means that need survey is essential to be conducted in the beginning of designing material to understand who the learners are.

  16 Stage 2. Description of Purpose This stage is conducted after the designer gathered information about the learners. In other words, the result of the needs survey becomes the basis of defining the purposes of the language program. As stated by Yalden, the more accurately one can predict what the learners’ language or communicative needs will be, the more clearly the content of a syllabus can be delineated (1987: 105). The defined purposes will be the foundation for the major decision faced by the designer in the next stage.

  Stage 3. Selection of Development Syllabus Type

  There is no single model of syllabus design that is universally agreed upon. The designer can combine more than one syllabus to gain the model of syllabus that is more reliable. A modification of existing structural syllabuses to a completely learner–centered approach is one of the solutions.

  Stage 4. Production of Proto Syllabus

  At this stage, the syllabus designer will turn to the description of the content that the syllabus will have (Yalden, 1987: 138). The researcher should work to select the most effective and efficient syllabus to gain the description of the syllabus content.

  Stage 5. Production of Pedagogical Syllabus

  The pedagogical syllabus provides a repertoire of words and phrases, chosen as exponents of functions and suitable to the topics identified as important to the learners (Yalden, 1987: 144). After the designer develops teaching/ learning approaches, the designer implies the syllabus into the teaching/ learning activities.

  17 Stage 6. Development and Implementation of Classroom Procedure In this stage, the designer develops the classroom procedure such as selection of type of exercise, teaching technique, preparation of the lesson plans, and preparation of the weekly plans.

  Stage 7. Evaluation