21
men. Although violence also happens to men, the number of violence that happens to men is less than violence that happens to women.
C. Gender Discrimination
Actually, Gender differences are not problems but, in fact, they cause gender discrimination between men and women. Basically, gender differences are
something natural but, for a long period gender differences bring injustice for men especially for women. In general, gender discriminations are a system of social
structure that society puts women as man’s server. Gender discriminations are manifested into several things such as: marginalization, subordination, stereotype,
violence, and burden. The explanation below tries to describe manifestation about gender discrimination as clear as possible.
1 Marginalization
Marginalization is elimination process that caused poverty toward women in economy, law, and education. There are several processes of
marginalization to women caused by gender differences. The elimination process can come from conviction, religion, government policy, and
culture or science assumption. Marginalization has happened to women since women lived at home. Moreover in several religions women is
placed below men. This thing caused women in the corner of social life and marginalize. “Contohnya banyak suku-suku di Indonesia yang tidak
memberi hak pada kaum perempuan untuk mendapatkan warisan sama
22
sekali. Sebagian tafsir keagamaan memberi hak waris setengah dari hak waris laki-laki terhadap perempuan”.
17
2 Subordination
Subordination is an attitude, action, or society’s opinion to women where they put women lower than men. It means every women’s words and
actions are not considered as important thing although they have done the right thing. Moreover, Society assumes that women are weak, emotional,
and gentle. It causes women cannot be a leader in work field, society or household. Subordination is caused by gender differences that occur in
some different form, place to place, and time to time. In society there are several things that cause subordination to women, and then the
subordination manifests in work field. Society’s perceptions about women are irrational, weak, emotional, and gentle that causes women does not
have opportunity to be a leader. Subordination to women position in work place becomes systematically and structurally. It looks in recruitment
system and salary, and the other facilities that occur to women. In a family, usually girl has no an access as a boy to get education.
Specifically, predominant gender roles and division of labor in household affect women’s economic rights partly because they limit women’s access
to education and employment.
18
For example, poor family has two children boy and girl. Their priority is a boy to get access education than
17
DR. Mansour Fakih 1996, op. cit.13-14
18
Gender, Planning, and Human Rights, edited by Tovi Fenster. p.107-108
23
girl. This situation often happens toward woman because gender differences between man and woman.
19
3 Stereotype
Generally, stereotype is a mark or label to certain group or individual with negative or positive perspective. Gender stereotypes
20
are those ideas imposed by society of what is expected toward men and women in the
social structure. In western cultures, men are expected to be assertive, risk- taking, tough, unfeeling, insensitive, combative, the owner or ruler of the
home, meanwhile women are expected to be nurturers, caregivers, demure, polite, the family homemaker. One of the stereotypes comes from gender
differences.
21
There are some unfair things toward certain sex, usually women, that comes from gender differences. “Contohnya, penandaan yang
berawal dari asumsi bahwa perempuan bersolek adalah dalam rangka memancing perhatian lawan jenisnya, maka setiap ada kasus kekerasan
atau pelecehan seksual selalu dikaitkan dengan stereotype tersebut. Bahkan jika ada pemerkosaan yang dialami oleh perempuan, masyarakat
berkecenderungan menyalahkan korbannya”.
22
19
DR. Mansour Fakih 1996, op cit.15-16
20
The stereotype characteristic of feminine women includes passive, fragile, dependent, non-competitive, receptive, afraid to the risk, emphatic, non aggressive, maternal, unambitious,
emotionally labile, intuitive, having low pain, tolerance, sensitive to inner feeling and to responses from other people. Crowley and Susan Himmelweit; 1992
21
http:en.wikipedia.orgwikiStereotypeSex_and_gender_stereotyping. Retrieved on October 11, 2008
22
DR. Mansour Fakih 1996, op cit.16-17
24
Basically, the stereotype to women is labeled by socio-cultural. Society judges that woman must be a good house wife; woman must be a cook for
her family, etc. The category between men and women with all the attributes and their roles are not natural construction but the product of
history. Subordination toward woman is not biological identity that identical with her, but, because the negative stereotype to her that is
legalized by state, culture, policy, and religion.
4 Violence
Violence is an assault to physique or emotional someone. Violence happens to people basically comes from many sources, but there is one
kind of violence happens to certain people comes from gender perspective. The violence happens because bias gender is called gender-related
violence. Basically this violence is caused by bias power in society. In other words, who has great power can control another. Several kinds of
violence based on gender differences occur in the level of household, state, and religion.
Almost all members of society have different role and labor division between men and women; sometimes the differences limit and hamper the
potency of women and men that cause violence to certain sex. This violence occurs because men more dominant than women in society, state,
and work field. There are several actions classified as gender-related violence:
25
a. Violation
. Violation occurs if someone forces to get sexual contact without willingness from women. This willingness cannot
be expressed because several factors, for instance fear, shy, perforce in economy, social, even cultural or there is no choice.
23
b. Physical Assault.
This action often occurs in household domestic violence, including violence that happens to children child
abuse.
24
c. Genital Mutilation
. This action refers to sexual organs for instance, circumcision to women. There are some reasons about
this action, but the strongest reason is to control women, but today this action seldom happens.
25
d. Prostitution . Prostitution is one kind of violence which organized
by economical mechanism. This mechanism brings detriment to women.
26
e. Pornography . Pornography is a shape of emotional violence.
Pornography is classified as violence because woman’s body is used as the object to get advantage for someone’s sake.
f. Sterilization
. This action often happens in poor and developing countries. This violence is done to fulfill the government’s target
and to control the number of birth. Actually this program occurs because bias gender and women must accept this action although
23
Ridwan, M.Ag, Kekerasan Berbasis Gender, Pusat Study Gender, op cit.25
24
Ibid. p. 28
25
http:en.wikipedia.orgwikiGender- Related Violence. retrieved on June 28, 2009
26
DR. Mansour Fakih 1996, op cit.18-19
26
this action is harmful for her body. This action is classified as gender related violence because many victims are women.
g. Molestation . This case happens if man touches or holds certain
areas of women’s body with various ways and chances meanwhile women unwillingness her body is touched or holds. This violence
often occurs in public room and public transportation such as bus, train, or work field.
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h. Sexual Harassment
. A bad action toward woman and often happens in many places, is called sexual harassment, nowadays
this action often happens toward woman in many countries. There are several actions can be classified as sexual harassment.
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Conveying a rough joke toward woman offensively. Hurting or making woman feels shy with the rough words.
Interrogating woman about her activity, sexual life, and her private life.
Asking sexual contact toward woman in promising to get a job or to get a promotion.
Touching or holding woman’s body without her permission.
5 Burden
There is an opinion that women have characteristics like diligent and protective, so they are not suitable to be a leader in household. It causes all
27
Ridwan, M.Ag, Kekerasan Berbasis Gender, Pusat Study Gender, op cit.22-24
27
jobs in household become women’s assignment. Consequently, many women shall do all jobs in house. Moreover for wives, they must serve her
children and her husband at the same time. In some poor families, they must accept and responsible this burden alone, moreover if those women
are worker. It means they get double burden, first their assignment at home and second in work field.
Many societies consider, domestic sphere is women’s assignment and they consider that this work is not productive than men’s work in public sphere.
Initially, women’s assignment in domestic sphere is formed by socio- cultural in order they accept that perception, actually women’s work in
domestic sphere heavier than men’s work in public sphere. Moreover for women worker, they have double assignments, at home and at work
field.
29
29
DR. Mansour Fakih 1996, op cit.21-23
28
CHAPTER III RESEARCH FINDINGS
A. Data Description
