3
an understanding of local populations’ own internally defined standards, many of which are qualitative, non-monetary, non-material, and long-term and which often
define what makes life, society, and the environment worthwhile. These culturally defined standards may include aesthetic, emotional, moral, religious,
cosmological, and even inter-generational or “bequeath” considerations having a direct bearing on resource management.
For projects that aim to promote sustainable uses of coastal resources, it is important to understand which resources a community places values on and which
they do not. In a baseline assessment of two coastal communities, Pollnac 1997 states “It is essential to understand individual perceptions of factors influencing the
status of coastal resources prior to attempts to involve people in community-based management efforts.” According to Pollnac 2000; p.1, resource management
projects may need to “either direct outcomes at local values or somehow change these values.” Gaining an understanding of how local communities perceive natural
resources can allow developers of Integrated Coastal Management ICM
1
initiatives to adapt and refine management strategies to reflect the needs and desires of the
stakeholders.
1.3 Social and Economic Factors Influence Coastal Resource Use
It is important to recognize that communities do not necessarily have a single perception regarding their natural environment. Social and economic factors can
influence how people perceive their resources. Nazarea et al. 1998 state: Different groups within local populations e.g. rich versus poor, landed versus
tenants, . . . old versus young may have different perspectives and priorities in appraising their quality of life or their environment. In short, different
categories of people view “reality” with different lenses based on their positions in the internal socioeconomic hierarchy. These different vantage
points can help account for how each group or category of individuals manages the resources at its disposal to attain goals it considers important, as opposed to
pursuing the goals of scientists or planners. Understanding these variations both within groups and among outsiders, can help facilitate the search for a
common ground in the pursuit of broader goals such as environmental management…
Even when individuals or communities are interested in pursuing goals such as environmental management, social and economic cycles may influence their resource
management decisions. In a study on how poverty can influence resource use in rural Honduras, Stonich 1992 claims that poverty often exacerbates resource abuse.
1
I
ntegrated coastal management is a set of activities that are designed to maintain and improve coastal resources and the human societies they support while minimizing
social and environmental consequences Olsen, Lowry, and Tobey, 1999; Underdal, 1980
4
Stonich 1992, p. 386 states “because of economic and population pressures, governments and individuals are overexploiting the natural resources they control in
order to generate income to satisfy immediate needs – whether those requirements are to generate foreign exchange at the national level or to increase current income at the
level of the household.” For example, economic pressures may force poorer farmers to utilize land more intensively by cultivating higher proportions of their land and
shortening fallow periods Stonich 1992, p. 291.
As economic, social, and population pressures increase, resources may become over-utilized, stressed and less productive, which in turn forces people to further
exploit their resources, creating a feedback cycle. Extreme resource degradation can disrupt local communities White et al. 1994 and force people to migrate in search of
better resources Ruitenbeek, 1996. White 1994, p. 2 claims that as a result of coral reef degradation:
fishery catches decline, tourism suffers, coastal erosion becomes more severe, and local economies loose their resource base. Deterioration of customary
resource use and tenure systems result from coral reef destruction and contributes to it. Social problems in coastal communities are made worse as
people’s traditional modes of livelihood decline.
This cycle is further exacerbated by what Pauly 1990 claims is a traditional perception of the fishery being a “dump” for excess labor. Where economic
opportunities are lacking, subsistence and commercial fishing can become saturated leading to over-fishing and resource degradation Pauly, 1990; Laroche and
Ramananarivo, 1995. Where unemployment prevails, it is likely that the sectors of the fishing industry that will become most exploited are those that are least capital
intensive. McManus et al. 1992, p. 3 claim, “in the Caribbean, spear fishing is becoming an increasingly important economic activity as a result of socioeconomic
factors related to underemployment and to the low outlay of capital equipment.” Unfortunately, spear fishing and other practices that require relatively small capital
investments are often quite destructive to coral reefs see section 7.5.
Though resource abuse can damage a community’s means of livelihood, tolerance of resource-degrading practices can be explained, in part, by Maslow’s
theory of a hierarchy of needs Maslow 1970. According to Maslow 1970, inability to meet basic needs such as food, shelter, and security can prevent people from
pursuing loftier ambitions. For individuals or communities that are continually struggling to meet basic needs, many of the motives behind resource conservation i.e.
that there is an intrinsic value in nature can seem too lofty to prioritize over their basic requirements; particularly when they require sacrifices. Despite legal sanctions,
potential health threats, and the damage inflicted on coastal resources, communities may tolerate resource-degrading practices because they may be the only available
livelihood option amidst chronic poverty Galvez et al., 1989.
Within Mahahual there are a number of social and economic factors at play that could influence how people perceive and use their surrounding resources.
Poverty, migration, and a lack of formal education define realities for some members of the community. This thesis will identify whether these factors influence the ways
5
in which people in the community perceive and use their coastal environment. However, choosing appropriate indicators to measure socioeconomic variables,
particularly wealth, can be difficult.
1.4 Measuring Wealth
