Theoretical Review REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

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CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The writer divides this chapter into 3 subtopics. The first is Theoretical review that consists of theories of character, characterization, critical approach, conflict, conflict resolution and historical background. The Historical background contains history of World War II and World War II in Britain. The second is Criticisms about the novel. The last one is Theoretical Framework.

2.1 Theoretical Review

In this part, some theories related to the study are presented. These theories will be useful to research the information that is used to solve the problems.

2.1.1 Theories of Character

According to Abrams 1985: 23 a character is the person in a dramatic or narrative work who is interpreted by the reader as being endowed with moral, dispositional and emotional qualities that are expressed in what they say – the dialogue – and by what they do – the action. E.M Forster 1978: 47-48 states that there are two kinds of characters: flat character and round character. A flat character is static and never changes. It is represented as ‘a single ideas or quality’, whereas a round character is always dynamic and complex in temperament. It is not easy to classify someone as a round character because his or her character is never static and is hard to guess. 7 Ian Milligan proposes another theory of character 1983: 155. He defines the character based on their role in a story. They are major and minor characters. Major characters are those who become the focus of the story from the beginning to the end. The major characters perform the most important role in clarifying the theme of the story. Minor or secondary characters are those who appear in a certain setting, just necessarily to become the background of the major characters.

2.1.2 Theories of Characterization

Holman and Horman 1986: 81 define that characterization is the creation of the imagery personages who exist for the readers as lifelike. The characterization is needed to justify the individual’s role and existence in the story. There are nine ways to make the characters understandable and come alive for the readers according to Murphy 1972: 161-173 as follows: 1. Personal Description Knowing a character by his or her physical appearance. The way he or she wears may also determine his or her character. 2. Character as seen by another Describing a character through the eyes and opinions of another. 3. Speech Interpreting a character through what a person says, whenever a person speaks, whenever he or she is in conversation with another, whenever he or she puts forward an opinion. 4. Past Life 8 Giving a clue to events that happened in a person’s past life to shape a person’s character. 5. Conversation of others Interpreting a character through the conversations of other people and the things they say about him and her. 6. Reactions Analyzing a character by knowing how that person reacts to various situations and events. 7. Direct comment Knowing a character from the author’s comment on a person’s character directly. 8. Thoughts Knowing a character from the author’s direct knowledge of what a person is thinking about. 9. Mannerism Giving the description of a person’s mannerisms, habits or idiosyncrasies, which may also tell the readers something about a person’s character.

2.1.3 Theories of Critical Approaches

Kennedy and Gioia 2002: 629 state that literary criticism is not an abstract, intellectual exercise; it is a natural human response to literature. Literary criticism is nothing more than discourse – spoken or written – about literature. Kennedy and Gioia 2002: 630-659 classified ten critical approaches to literature, they are formalistic criticism, biographical criticism, historical criticism, 9 psychological criticism, mythological criticism, sociological criticism, gender criticism, reader – response criticism, deconstructionist criticism, cultural criticism. In this study, the writer uses psychological criticism to analyze the conflict faced by Jessie as a soldier’s wife. Psychological criticism is a diverse category, but it often employs three approaches. First, it investigates the creative process of the artist: what is the nature of literary genius, and how it relates to normal mental functions. Second, the psychological study of a particular artist. Most modern literary biographies employ psychology to understand their subject’s motivation and behavior. Third, the analysis of fictional characters tries to bring modern insights about human behavior into the study of how fictional people act.

2.1.4 Theories of Conflict

Some people are interested in a certain literary work that has conflict in its plot. That is why conflict always becomes the important role for an author when creating a literary work. Worchel and Shebilske 1989: 446 state that conflict is a state that occur s when a person is motivated to choose between two or more mutually exclusive goals or courses of action. Events are mutually exclusive when choosing one automatically eliminates the other. Some conflict occurs almost every time you make a choice; the degree of conflict is influenced by the attractiveness of each choice and by how equally they are matched in attractiveness. Referring to conflict, Worchel and Cooper 1979: 499 define two basic types of conflict: 10 1. Intrapersonal conflict refers to conflict within the individual and can be one of four types: approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach- avoidance, and double approach-avoidance. 2. Interpersonal conflict involves competition between two or more individuals over a goal competition or it involves a disagreement as to the means for reaching a goal. In addition, Worchel and Shebilske classify four types of intrapersonal conflicts. They are Approach-Approach conflict, Avoidance-Avoidance conflict, Approach-Avoidance conflict and Double Approach-Avoidance conflict. The first is Approach – Approach conflict. The conflict involves a choice between two attractive goals. In theory, this conflict should be easy to resolve, because it is a “no lose” situation. However, this type of conflict can be stressful. The second is Avoidance-Avoidance conflict. This type of conflict results when people must choose between two unattractive goals. This type of conflict is difficult to resolve. The third is Approach-Avoidance conflict. The conflict involves only one goal that has both attractive and unattractive qualities. People’s desires to both obtain the goal and avoid it trap them in conflict. The last is Double Approach- Avoidance conflict. This type of conflict results when a person has to choose between two goals, each of which has both positive and negative qualities.

2.1.5 Theories of Conflict Resolution

Each person who has conflict surely will seek for the solution of his conflict. He would not keep his conflict for a long time because it will ruin himself. Besides, everyone would rather live in joy and peace than being 11 miserable for having many conflicts. Moreover we can manage and solve conflicts that we have. There are several styles of dealing with conflict. Kestner and Ray 2002: 60 state that many people are not aware that they tend to use the same conflict- management styles in dealing with all conflicts. Kestner and Ray 2002: 60-62 classify styles of conflict management as follow: 1. Avoidance The avoiding style is characterized by ignoring or withdrawing from a conflict rather than facing it. People who avoid conflict may be hoping that the conflict will go away or resolve itself without their involvement. 2. Accommodation An accommodating person may bend to the will of the other party in a conflict. Accommodators tend to want to appease or please others in order to keep the peace more than they want to meet their personal needs. 3. Passivity A passive conflict-management style is characterized by pretending that there is nothing wrong when there is. However, a passive person can be pushed to violence if there is no timely solution to an ongoing issue. 4. Compromise Compromisers do not avoid the problem, but they also do not engage in full collaboration with the other party. Some people believe that compromising is not a good way to resolve a dispute because one party may wind up giving too much to the other party in order to settle the dispute. 5. Aggression 12 An aggressive style is competitive and frequently unpleasant rather than cooperative. It often creates win- lose power struggles. An aggressive style might include threats of present and future harm to the other person, physically or legally. It is the style that leads to war. 6. Assertion An assertive person addresses his or her own issues and the issue s of other parties with equal respect. 7. Collaboration A collaborating conflict – management style is more likely to result in a potential solution that all parties can agree to. 8. Problem Solving The problem-solving style is one in which the individual operates from a cooperative and collaborative mode. Meanwhile, Isenhart and Spangle 2000: 45-152 also propose five alternatives to gain the conflict resolution. The five alternatives are negotiation, mediation, facilitation, arbitration and judicial processes. Those are as follows: 1. Negotiation Negotiation refers to mutually beneficial process of conflict resolving. This way involves the conflicting parties and demands enough cooperation from both parties. The aim is to reconcile or compromise the differences that occur between two conflicting parties. There are two ways of negotiation. Those are integrative and distributive negotiation. First, integrative negotiation is constructive approach in problem solving. 13 It approaches conflict in a joint venture relationship, an opportunity for mutual gain. In order to get the interest of both parties, they have to cooperate and respect each other through exchanging information and sharing the problems and interest. Second, distributive negotiation is a bargaining approach to resolving conflict. Each party views issues with a narrow perspective and accepts the outcome as a fixed goal. Both parties have to compete in order to achieve advantage in the process. 2. Mediation In mediation the third party has no stake in outcome and has no power to impose a decision. To make the mediation success is depend on the willingness of both disputants to accept the mediator’s rule and to share the information that might lead to a mutually beneficial agreement. 3. Facilitation In facilitation, the third party becomes a facilitator who enforces both parties to find the best solution. A facilitator manages verbal interactions between group members. Facilitation is applied when the conflict occurs in a high complexity and involves bigger group of parties. The process is fair and does not disadvantage spokespeople with different perspectives. 4. Arbitration Arbitration is an informal way to resolve the problems if both parties fail to conduct mediation or facilitation. The third party in arbitration is the decision maker for the conflict although the form of resolution depends on the conflicting parties’ agreement. 5. Judicial processes 14 A judicial process is the most formal way to resolve a conflict because the third party is court and it has power in process. The decision of the third party is binding and legal for both conflicting parties. It means any violation of the outcome by the parties is categorized as law violation. 2.1.6 Historical Background 2.1.6.1 History of World War II Since the setting of the novel Over Bethnal Green is World War II and the thesis analyzes about Jessie’s conflicts as a soldier’s wife during World War II, the writer gives the explanation of the history of World War II as quoted from www.worldwariihistory.info.html. World War II was the largest and most violent armed conflict in the history of mankind. The war began in 1939 and ended in 1945, with the Axis powers Germany, Italy and Japan against a coalition of the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, the United States, China and France. The World War II raged in three continents, they are Africa, Asia and Europe. This war was the most enormous war on earth. At least 50.000.000 people died in this war. The war started when in 1933, Adolf Hitler led the National Socialist German Workers Nazi Party, a mass movement that spread nationalistic, antidemocratic, and anti-Semitic ideology. He ended parliamentary government, assumed dictatorial powers, and proclaimed the Third Reich. The Nazi government increased the strength of the German armed forces and sought to overturn the Versailles Treaty, to recover German territory lost at the peace settlement, and to return to the so-called Fatherland German-speaking minorities within the borders of surrounding countries. The ultimate goal of Hitlers policy 15 was to secure living space for the German master race in Eastern Europe. With the Italian Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, he announced a Rome-Berlin alliance the Axis in 1935. Meanwhile, in the Far East, Japan began a war against China in 1937. The League of Nations failed to prevent Japanese aggression in Manchuria and an Italian invasion of Ethiopia. Soon Germany, Italy, and Japan became allies, facing Western democratic governments that wanted to avoid another war and the Soviet Union whose Communist government was widely distrusted. During March 1938 German troops had occupied Austria, incorporating it into the Reich. In September Hitler announced that the oppression of ethnic Germans living in Czechoslovakia was intolerable and that war was near. England and France met with Hitler the Munich Pact and compelled Czechoslovakia to cede its frontier districts to Germany in order to secure peace in our time. During March 1939 Hitler seized the rest of Czechoslovakia by force of arms and then turned his attention to Poland. Although Britain and France had guaranteed the integrity of Poland, Hitler and Josef Stalin, dictator of the Soviet Union, signed a secret, mutual non-aggression pact in August 1939. With the pact, Stalin built up his strength at the expense of Britain and France, and Hitler invaded Poland. When Hitlers army invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, World War II began.

2.1.6.2 World War II in Britain

The setting of Over Bethnal Green is in Britain, in order to have complete information, the writer gives the explanation of World War II in Britain as 16 adopted from www.worldwariihistory.info.html. In late 1938, Britain attempted to appease Germany and avoid another world war by signing the Munich Pact. This gave Germany permission to invade Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. When Hitler invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia a few months later, it was clear that this attempt at appeasement did not work. In March 1939, Britain announced that she would support Poland if Germany invaded it. Germany invaded anyway. In secret, Hitler and Stalin had signed an agreement dividing up Poland between the two powers. On September 3, 1939, Britain declared war on Germany. This marks the beginning of World War II in Europe. Morgan 1984: 556 states that there were massive air-raid precautions, trenches in public parks, barrage balloons aloft, anti-aircraft weaponry deployed on public buildings. Thirty–eight million gas masks were distributed to men, women, and children; hundreds of thousands of schoolchildren were evacuated from major cities to distant, and presumably safer, rural areas though many later drifted home. Rationing of food, clothing, petrol, and other commodities suddenly became commonplace. In May 1940, Britain got a more aggressive wartime leader Winston Churchill replaced Neville Chamberlain as Prime Minister. That same month, on May 26, 1940, in the face of a large-scale German offensive, British troops on the continent were forced into one of the largest evacuations in history the evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force from Dunkirk on the Belgian coast. From July to October 1940, the English people suffered under the Battle of Britain: intense German bombing. German bombers streamed across the Channel to bomb British factories, ports and airfields. On September 7-8, German bombs succeeded in destroying central London, the raids continued without stop. The subway stations 17 that served as the shelters for the civilians did not save hundreds of people from being killed and thousands more from being wounded. 60,000 British civilians died as a result of air raids. However, the Royal Air Force valiantly defended its homeland from the German Luftwaffe, and the Nazis were unable to crush British morale. In March 1941, the United States supported British in the form of arms and ammunition through the Lend-Lease Act. In January 1942, Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to establish a Combined Chief of Staff and to the make defe ating Germany their first priority. After three more long years, the Allies won the war in Europe. Germany surrendered unconditionally on May 7, 1945. The effects of World War II in Britain were manifold: 357.000 Britons had been killed 30.000 of them merchant seamen, 60.000 of them civilian air-raid victims and 600.000 more had been disabled.

2.2 Criticism