Theoretical Description REVIEW OF LITERATURE
14 a.
Young Learners in Classroom Phillips 1993: 6 states that the language for the children in classroom is
better if it is English and then it is translated in their mother tongue after telling it in English. In a feedback session, children are expected to use English in order to
make them accustomed to and aware of activities that develop their speaking skill. The aim of giving feedback is for the children to express their feelings and
attitudes, it would be counter-productive to expect them to use their limited knowledge of English. What is important is that the children are
given clear guidelines on when they are expected to use English and when their first language is permissible. Phillips, 1993: 6
When telling command or giving instructions to children, it will make the students understand if the teacher also uses gestures as well. If the students are
still confused and difficult to speak English, the teacher can help them write sentences on board, then children can read the sentences and start learning to
speak English well. Different activities require different groupings. Groupings that are mostly
used are individual, pairs, groups, and whole class. Individual work is used for reading, making things, for example writing narrative or experience, and keeping
vocabulary records. Pair work is done by two children. It is commonly used in speaking activities like mini role plays or the task that asks children to read and
write in pairs. Group work consists of three or more children. Unfortunately, it is usually not really conductive to have groups of more than five. The last grouping
is whole class that the children can work as a whole class in which the students focus on the teacher. It is seen in a presentation, game, or storytelling.
15 Phillips 1993: 8 proposes that physical organization of the classroom is
also important. The way of how to arrange and plan the situation in classroom supports the teaching learning activity. It must be appropriate with the activity that
will be applied in classroom. For example, if there will be songs and games, open- space classroom is needed. A quiet corner is appropriate for reading or self-study.
The classroom can be made like having quite big space for children to come out to the board and to move around the classroom. Physical organization is as important
as the others, such as materials and the ways of teaching. To help children in memorizing and remembering all materials that have
been taught, they must have folder or notebook. In the notebook, they can write grammar, vocabulary notes, and keep all handouts well. Children need to be
shown their working organization. Younger children need much more supervision. It is different with older children. Teachers just encourage them in
order to be more responsible for their own work. The material which is given to young learners is significant for their
learning. Teachers have to give appropriate material to learners. Setiyadi 2006: 179 proposes that learning for young learners should be fun and natural for
children. Georgiou and Pavlou 2003: 8 says that children are still too young to recognize the usefulness of a foreign language, but they can keep learning through
creative and enjoyable technique, such as story, drawing, games, songs, puzzles, and drama. It would not be reasonable to ask younger children to make a story
with past tense form or ask older children to color the vocabulary pictures. The younger children would feel difficult, whereas the older children would perceive
16 as childish activity. The more enjoyable the learning process, the more memorable
the material for learners. It is common sense that if an activity is enjoyable, it will be memorable;
the language involved will ‘stick’, and the children will have a sense of achievement which will develop motivation for further learning. This
cyclical process generates positive attitude things that primary teachers can transmit to children. Children learn a lot more than English in their
English classes: the tasks and activities stimulate and continue their all- round development. Phillips, 1993: 6
b. Young Learners in Assessment
Assessment will be a threatening sound and not suited for children at the first, but it is significant part of teaching and learning. Based on Georgiou and
Pavlou 2003: 4, assessment can be carried through a number of instruments, for example, tests or self-assessment. It can be formal or informal.
One of the assessments which could help children’s development is self- assessment. It is extremely important because it promotes invaluable learning
skills such as monitoring one’s own progress, reflecting on one’s ability and learning styles and setting personal goals. Furthermore, in self-assessment,
children will always say what their feeling is and it gives them a certain sense of empowerment Georgiou and Pavlou, 2003: 10. When children assess
themselves, they have to need more guidance and time. This self-assessment can be from portfolios, questionnaires, conferencing, graphic representations and
dialogue journals. It aims at checking children’s language learning progress. Feedback is also an important assessment for children. Teachers can
discuss together about the feedback of students’ assignment with the children.
17 Assessment is not complete as soon as you collect the children’s work.
Offering feedback is an integral part of the assessment process and should follow as soon as possible after the assessment task is carried out. One of
the best ways to give feedback is through conferencing with the children, when you discuss the results of the assessment. Georgiou and Pavlou,
2003: 10
It is expected that the teacher gives positive and supportive feedback for the students since they also write the positive and negative about their own
learning process. One point that must be avoided is to let the students’ motivation down. The teacher should not make the students depressed, but motivated. Giving
feedback is the right activity to motivate the students in order to improve their language learning in case there are students who are still lack of motivation.
3. Motivation
The following section explains the definition of motivation, motivation theories in psychology, and language learning motivation.
a. Definition of Motivation
Dornyei 2001: 7 describes motivation as the choice of a particular action, the effort of doing something and the persistence with doing it. Dornyei also states
that motivation explains why people decide to do something, how hard they are going to achieve it and how long they are willing to maintain the activity.
Motivation is the key of the learners’ success. It determines the successful or unsuccessful learners.
To summarize, motivation is related to one of the most basic aspects of the human mind, and most teachers and researchers would agree that it has a
very important role in determining success or failure in any learning situation. Language learners, who really want to learn a foreign language
be able to master a reasonable working knowledge. Dornyei, 2001: 7
18 According to Scheidecker and Freeman 1999: 116, quoted by Dornyei
2001: 1, motivation is the most complex and challenging issue faced by teachers today. When there is a student who is well motivated, it is sure if the student has
reasons for learning so that the student becomes an enthusiastic and keen learner. b.
Motivation Theories in Psychology It discusses theories of motivation which dominates motivational
approaches. It is taken from Motivation: Theories and Principles. 1 Expectancy Value Theories
The main motivational components of this theory are expectancy of success and the value attached to success on task. Motivation to perform various
tasks is the individual’s expectancy of success in a given task and the effort of the individual to success on that task.
2 Achievement Motivation Theory
The main motivational components of this theory are the expectancy of success, value of doing something better, need for achievement, and fear of
failure. Achievement motivation is determined by conflicting approach and avoidance tendencies.
3 Self-efficacy Theory
Perceived self-efficacy is the willingness to achieve someone’s goal. It is the main motivational component of this theory. It refers to people’s judgement of
their capabilities to carry out certain specific tasks. Their sense of efficacy will determine their choice of the activities attempted.
19 4
Attribution Theory Attribution is about a process of making something. Attribution is about
past successes and failures which become the main motivational components of this theory. The individual’s explanations of why past successes and failures that
have occurred have consequences on the person’s motivation to initiate future action.
5 Self-worth Theory
The main motivational component is having a feeling of confidence. People are highly motivated to behave in ways that enhance their sense of
personal value and worth. For example, the students have high motivation to study English in order to have good score in examination.
6 Goal Setting Theory
The main motivational components of this theory are goal properties, the specificity, difficulty, and commitment. Goals lead to the highest performance.
People will show their commitment to reach their goal. 7
Goal Orientation Theory Mastery goals and performance goals are the main motivational
components in this theory. Mastery goals which focus on learning the content are superior to performance goals which focus on demonstrating ability and getting
good grades. 8
Self-determination Theory There are intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation in the main
motivational components. Intrinsic motivation concerns with behavior that is
20 performed for its own sake in order to experience pleasure and satisfaction such as
the joy of doing a particular activity or satisfying one’s curiosity. Extrinsic motivation involves performing a behavior as a mean to an end to receive some
extrinsic reward or to avoid punishment. 9
Social Motivation Theory The main motivational component of this theory is environmental
influences. It is a motivation which possesses relationship more with the socio- cultural rather than individual. This case could be seen when the students socialize
to their friends and teacher. 10
Theory of Planned Behavior Attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control are the main
motivational component of this theory. Someone’s attitude towards a target influences the overall pattern of the person’s responses to the target.
c. Language Learning Motivation
There are two types of motivation. The first type is extrinsic motivation and the second is intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is caused by any
number of outside factors, for example, the need to pass an exam, the hope of financial reward, or the possibility of future travel. Intrinsic motivation, by
contrast, comes from within the individual. Thus, a person might be motivated by the enjoyment of the learning process itself or by a desire to make themselves feel
better. According to Stipek 1988: 6, motivation is relevant to learning because learning is an active process requiring conscious and planned activity.
21 1
Material According to Dornyei 2001: 13, language is more than merely a
communication code whose grammar rules and vocabulary can be taught very much the same way as any other school subject. Learners need more concentration
to understand it because the target language that the students learn is the language which is not really familiar with them.
Learning a language in classroom also deals with material. The material given to the students has to be appropriate with their level. Students will not be
motivated to learn unless they regard the material as worth learning Dornyei, 2001: 63. He explains that learners will be able to do the assignment given by the
teacher if the teacher provides some coaching 2001: 109. The coaching helps them to understand what they will have to do. The coaching has to be done in
order not to have misunderstanding from both teachers and students. Some children usually seem to work hard on assigned tasks even though
the material is not interesting. The important thing is there is no force for the children to do the tasks. The children simply do what the teacher says, no matter
how boring and unchallenging the tasks are Stipek, 1988: 72. Sometimes, the materials that are too difficult are not motivating the students too 1988: 86.
2 Metacognitive of Self-motivating Strategy
Metacognitive control strategy is one of self-motivating strategies suggested by Kuhl’s 1987 and Corno and Kanfer’s 1993, quoted by Dornyei
2001: 110. It refers to conscious techniques used by the learner to monitor and
22 control concentration and to stop disapproval 2001: 111. There are some
examples of motivating themselves in the language learning. a
Giving oneself regular self-reminders to concentrate The students have to motivate themselves. There is indication that they
want to be better in the future learning. By motivating themselves, they will have better language learning. For example, “Come on, just a little bit more”.
b Imagining the potential consequences of a lack of concentration
The students think about the consequences if they make possible mistakes. They learn to accept the result whether it is good or bad. This strategy is to tell the
students to do the work given by the teacher as well as possible. c
Giving oneself regular self-reminders of the deadline The students have to check their own progress regularly. They are given
the deadline so that they are motivated to improve their learning on time with its deadline. Besides, they become the responsible students since they are able to do
their task on time. d
Intentionally ignoring attractive alternatives or irrelevant aspects The students have to focus on things. They have to stop thinking or
worrying something continuously. It may make someone not pay attention to the explanation or instruction.
e Identifying recurring distractions and developing defensive routines
It may be a useful exercise with long-term effects to first observe the students for a while. It also develops a self-talk response that will keep their mind
23 on target because it is applied routinely. The mistakes which are always repeated
by the students can be a learning for them to have better learning in the future. f
Cutting short any purposeless or counterproductive procrastination The teacher should cut short any purposeless. For example, if there is a
student who always talk something unimportant, the teacher should handle it and bring them to the goal of the learning. The warning from the teacher is usually
useful and effective. g
Using starter rituals to get into focus Before having language learning in class, the students can have a
preparation. For example, checking a web site on the computer before getting down to work, clearing one’s desk, etc. These ways can often get them into the
appropriate mind frame. h
Focusing on the first steps to take By narrowing down the attention to the very first things to do, the students
might concentrate sufficient energy to get started. To get the focus from the students in the start of the class, the teacher should make attractive movement or
saying. Concentration in the beginning supports their learning process until the end.
3 Feedback
Providing effort feedback for the students is important. According to Dornyei 2001: 121, it is the most effective way for giving feedback to the
students. In failure situations, the general advice is that the teacher should
24 emphasize. The teacher should show the reason why the students fail. This way
communicates to students that they can do better in the future. Stipek 1988: 206 explains that it does not matter if the students fail in
their learning. It helps them to learn the target language more. Besides, the students also develop in their self-confidence since they learn from their own
mistakes. Many motivation theorists emphasize the importance of success in building children’s self-confidence.