word means.” The word implicature in the present study reflects to what is implicitly meant in what is explicitly said. The Multiple-choice DCTs in the
present study will provide 20 numbers of written spoken English conversations in which each of the conversations has an implicit meaning in what is explicitly said
by the speaker.
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CHAPTER II :
LITERA TURE R EVIEW
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter provides the theoretical review which is used in the study and the theoretical framework of the study. In theoretical review, it will be discussed
the constructs used in the study, namely development, pragmatics, pragmatic competence, pragmatic failure, and language transfer. Beside the definitions of
pragmatics, the aspects of pragmatics will be discussed such as: speech acts, politeness, and implicature. Meanwhile, in theoretical framework, all the
constructs and concepts will be built up and synthesized elaborately.
A. Theoretical Review
In this sub chapter, some theories, namely development, pragmatics, pragmatic competence, pragmatic failure, and language transfer, will be discussed.
1. Development
There are many definitions of development from various perceptions. Thomas 2004: 1 states, “development is contested, complex, and ambiguous.”
This is because development has been defined from different fields. For example, from the literature point of view: “development is seen as a vision of the liberation
of people and peoples’ dominated, based on structural transformation in the 1950s and 1960s,” Gore, 2000: 794-5. Another perspective is from what Hickey and
Mohan 2003 identify as ‘post-modernists’, “The post-modernists view that development is a ‘discourse’ a set of idea that actually shapes and frames
‘reality’ and power relationship,” 2003: 38. Still, there is another concept suggested by Cowen and Shenton 1998. They see development as: “an
immanent unintentional of underlying process development such as the development of capitalism and imminent intentional or willed development such
as the deliberate process to ‘develop’ the Third World which began after World War II as much of it emerged from colonization,” Cowen and Shenton, 1998:
50. Apparently, the definitions of development aforementioned focus more on
the society development with all its aspects. The development discussed in the present study is more specific on the study of human development. There is a very
simple definition, though, that can be used in almost all study on development. This definition is suggested by Chambers 2004. Chambers mentions that
“development is notion of good change,” 2004: iii, 2-3. Of course, this very simple definition raises many questions because it is too wide.
In the study of human development, the definition of development has something to do with the ways in which people change throughout life. Papalia
and friends 2003 first give the definition of the field of human development as
follows: “The field of human development is the scientific study of the human being process of development” Papalia, 2003: 7.
The domains of the development in the human development consists three areas, namely physical development, cognitive development, and psychosocial
development. Physical development will be about the growth of body and brain and change or stability in sensory capacities, motor skills, and health. Cognitive
development can be seen on the change or stability in mental abilities including learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity.
Psychosocial development is more on change and stability in emotions, personality, and social relationship.
So, it is clear that Papalia suggests that in the field of human development there are two possible situations happen in the developmental process, namely
change and stability. However, it is through change that development occurs. Furthermore, Papalia also mentions that there are two kinds of developmental
change: quantitative and qualitative, “Quantitative change is a change in number
or amount, such as growth in height, weight, vocabulary, …..or frequency of
communication. Qualitative change is a change in kind, structure, or
organization,” Papalia, 2003: 9. Based on some different definitions from some different perspectives
above, we can take a conclusion that development is a good change or, to be more specific, an improvement that occurs in a human being that can be measured
during the process or as a result at a certain point of time. The good change or the improvement can be on the physical development, cognitive development, and
psychosocial development. The development can be seen as quantitative change which is a change in number or amount and qualitative change which is a change
in kind, structure, or organization.
