Introduction Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:E:Ecological Economics:Vol33.Issue2.May2000:

Ecological Economics 33 2000 193 – 203 SURVEY The evolution of aquaculture in African rural and economic development Randall E. Brummett a,1 , Meryl J. Williams b, a International Center for Li6ing Aquatic Resources Management Egypt, PO Box 2416 , Cairo, Egypt b International Center for Li6ing Aquatic Resources Management Headquarters, PO Box 2631 , 0718 Makati City, Metro Manila, Philippines Received 22 January 1999; received in revised form 5 August 1999; accepted 27 October 1999 Abstract In Africa, aquaculture has developed only recently and so far has made only a small contribution to economic development and food security. We review developments and identify constraints to the expansion of aquaculture in economic and rural development at the continental, national and farm levels. Past development initiatives failed to achieve sustainable increases in production. In contrast, a growing number of smallholder farmers in many countries have been adopting and adapting pond aquaculture to their existing farming systems and slowly increasing their production efficiency. An evolutionary approach that builds on a fusion of local and outside participation in technology development and transfer appears more likely to produce fish production systems that are more productive and more environmentally and socially sustainable in the long term. © 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords : Aquaculture; Africa; Rural development; Food security; Integration; Evolution of aquaculture www.elsevier.comlocateecolecon

1. Introduction

Although tilapia may have been cultured in Egypt as long as 2500 years ago, there is little tradition of fish culture in most African countries Bardach et al., 1972. Though this novelty ap- plies in varying degrees to many fish farming regions, when coupled with the severe political and socioeconomic constraints facing African agriculture in general, the result is an aquaculture sector that makes only a small contribution to food security and economic development. This is despite Africa’s natural endowments of high-po- tential aquatic genetic resources and adequate water in many parts Kapetsky, 1994, 1995. This situation may now be changing, brought about by Corresponding author. Tel.fax: + 63-2-812-3798. E-mail address : m.j.williamscgiar.org M.J. Williams 1 ICLARM Contribution Number 1381. 0921-800900 - see front matter © 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 9 2 1 - 8 0 0 9 9 9 0 0 1 4 2 - 1 R .E . Brummett , M .J . Williams Ecological Economics 33 2000 193 – 203 Table 1 Milestones in African aquaculture a Research Development Clarias Fish culture starts in Kenya 1924 1920s 1930s Fish culture starts in Zaire 1937 1940s Intensification in Zaire 1946+, Starts in Zambia 1942, Cameroon 1948, Congo-Brazzaville 1949, Zimbabwe 1950 Rapid development, increase in number of ponds, Tilapia culture 1950s spreads to many countries. 1960s Spread and development of fish culture peaks, re- Tilapia culture and biology gression begins. ‘Other’ species biology. Regression continues. Second wave of develop- 1970s Tilapia culture systems, pond culture systems ment begins. Oysters, ‘other’ species biology, surveys, eco- ‘Second wave’ continues — Cote d’Ivoire, Kenya. 1980s Tilapia culture systems Small and large-scale private sector farming starts nomicscommercial aspects, subsistence inte- in Cote d’Ivoire, Egypt, Kenya, Nigeria and grated aquaculture–agriculture. Zambia; shellfish farming initiated in Tunisia, South Africa, Morocco, Senegal, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Mauritius and Reunion. Serious crisis of confidence in the subsistence scale aquaculture where 90 of development assistance concen- trated. Broader range of biological, socioeconomic, inter- Commercial development and diversification con- 1990s disciplinary and inter-sector research tinues in many countries; production gradually mounts. Re-examination of directions for small scale aquaculture and contributions to food secu- rity of the poor. Many countries and regional bodies e.g. the Southern African Development Community start development plans for aquacul- ture. Private sectorgovernment and non-govern- ment organization roles re-examined. Sustainability, natural resource management in- cluding biodiversity and climate considerations begin to impinge on the sector. a Adapted from Powles 1987 and extended to the present period, with special reference to Huisman 1990, New 1991, Satia 1991, Lazard, et al. 1991, Harrison et al. 1994. a combination of increasing demand for food and other goods from the finite natural resource base and efforts by farmers, researchers, national gov- ernments and development assistance agencies. We examine the evolution of African aquaculture at continental, national and farm levels, and pro- pose ways in which its rate of development may be speeded up yet avoid the environmental pitfalls of some rapid aquaculture development elsewhere.

2. Aquaculture development