Table 3 Common constraints to further development of African aqua-
culture for rural development Constraint
Lack of cash: e.g. Malawi: average smallholding 1.2 ha; nearly two-thirds of farms have no excess production for
sale; 55 are unable to even feed their families World Bank, 1996.
Shortage of labor: Little labor skilled in pond construction, management Kapalamula, 1993;
Christensen, 1994. Social leveling mechanisms and cultural constraints:
Harrison, 1994. Quality of government extension: ICLARM-GTZ, 1991.
Land tenure and ownership arrangements: Brummett and Noble, 1995.
Biophysical limitations: nutrients and water in limited supply andor highly seasonal in availability Brummett,
1997.
and nutrient levels are manipulated to enhance returns to capture fisheries. Small waterbodies of
less than 20 ha are the most common targets of these strategies, but larger reservoirs, coastal lakes
along the Mediterranean and inland flood plains have also been put forward as having potential
Coates, 1995; De Silva, 1995. Introductions such as
the small
pelagic kapenta
Limnothrissa miodon into Lake Kariba have produced signifi-
cant fisheries, although other introductions have had catastrophic consequences for indigenous bio-
diversity e.g. of the Nile perch Lates niloticus into Lake Victoria. Estimates of the optimal
potential yield from small waterbodies in sub-Sa- haran Africa alone range about 1 million tons per
year Coates, 1995. Little additional technical knowledge is required to achieve large gains, al-
though environmental degradation, loss of biodi- versity, lack of good management regimes and
socioeconomic factors could be major constraints Pitcher and Hart, 1995.
3. Lessons from the past: getting the right assistance to the farmer
Because of their rural development context, yet commercial orientation, the smallscale commer-
cial sector has been the logical point of interven- tion
for the
international development
community. During the 1980s, about 90 of the international assistance to African aquaculture
went to this group Huisman, 1990. On average, overall assistance was US18.28 million per year
for the period 1985 – 1989 Insull and Orzeszko, 1991. This was 11 of total assistance to aqua-
culture worldwide, for negligible measured im- pact. More than 300 assistance projects were
initiated from the early 1970s to the early 1990s. They concentrated on extension, training and
building state farms and hatcheries. They stressed proven technology imported from established in-
dustries. However, these were often introduced with insufficient regard for the prevailing social
systems, economic conditions, the indigenous knowledge base and natural resource constraints.
Harrison et al. 1994 reviewed the generally dis- mal record of this assistance, confirming earlier
200 – 500 m
2
fed with unprocessed agricultural by-products. Fish are produced for home con-
sumption or for the local barter economy. Little or no cash is involved. Although different from
those faced by commercial producers, the poten- tial constraints to production by smallholders are
likewise formidable Table 3.
These two main sectors of aquaculture are not sharply differentiated and a continuum of systems
exists. Characterizing the various stages within the continuum helps the formulation of policies and
development interventions. For example, a third, intermediate, type of aquaculture enterprise can
be identified in some countries. These enterprises are often referred to as ‘small-scale commercial’.
Farmers in this group may represent a step in the transition from the rural development sector to
more commercial aquaculture. Compared to those in the rural development sector, these farmers
purchase a greater proportion of inputs and sell more of their products for cash. They differ from
purely commercial systems by retaining their so- cial connections to the local community. Main-
taining this balance is extremely difficult in poor African communities and, consequently, success
stories are scarce.
Culture-based fisheries might also be on the continuum. In these systems, species composition
reviews e.g. King and Ibrahim, 1988; Huisman, 1990. The loss of confidence in small-scale com-
mercial aquaculture led to considerable debate over solutions and reluctance among the assis-
tance community to fund further work in any type of aquaculture.
That these projects have not resulted in large, sustained increases in fish production, however,
does not necessarily mean that aquaculture, per se, is a nonviable proposition in Africa. It is more
likely that the point of entry and modus operandi for earlier development projects was incorrect.
One proof of this is that aquaculture among smallholders has recently been expanding across
the continent Nathanae¨l and Moehl, 1989; Mol- nar et al., 1991; van den Berg, 1994; Campbell,
1995; Murnyak and Mafwenga, 1995; Ngenda, 1995. These new projects have been based on
participatory and evolutionary approaches and a rural development focus as recommended in the
thematic evaluation of aquaculture FAONO- RADUNDP, 1987.
Over the course of rural development, changes in land use, family and social structure may, in
fact, be unavoidable. Smallholder aquaculture may cause problems associated with changes in
internal household dynamics and community rela- tionships resulting from activities of rural devel-
opment practitioners Harrison, 1994; Harrison et al., 1994. Relatively better off farmers tend to be
early adopters and major beneficiaries e.g. Har- rison, 1994.
However, recent experience has shown that, if sensitivity to the needs and problems of the user
group can be built into development activities, these problems might be minimized. User friendly
approaches can also speed technology uptake Brummett and Noble, 1995; Brummett and
Chikafumbwa, 1998 and engender a spirit of innovation that can cause small-scale farming sys-
tems to evolve Chikafumbwa, 1995.
4. Future food security, fish supply and demand
