Review of Related Theories

usually minor characters although not all minor characters are flat. They are undistinguishable from their class or group. We understand little about their traits and lives. Unlike the round characters who are dynamic, this type of character is static since they are not developed and do not change or grow. The term stock characters is also found in this theory to show the type of character who performs in the repeating situations and have many common or outstanding traits for examples are the clown, the revenger, the foolish boss, the macho male, etc. They are given the label stereotype because they all seem to be cast in the same mold. Authors use many different ways to convey information about characters in fiction through the methods of characterizing which is often called characterization. Grenville states: “Characterization is all the things writers do to build up the characters they want. Characterization is the process that transforms real- life people into characters in fiction 1998: 36.” M. J. Murphy’s Understanding Unseens 1972: 161-173 includes the theory of characterization and he proposes nine methods to disclose the characters. Below are those nine methods: a. Personal description The character is personally described by using the appearance skin color, hair, eyes, nose, hands, and the other parts of the body and clothes how she or he wears the cloth and what kind of cloth she or he wears. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI b. Characters as seen by another By using this method, the readers are able to describe the certain character through the other’s character opinion, view, attitudes, and comments to that character. c. Speech The conversations even if the character do monologue that are made by the author allow the readers to notice how the characters speak or say about something so that they give information about the characters. d. Past life This methods invites the readers to describe the characters through their past life or experiences. e. Conversation of other The author describes the characteristics of a character through the conversation done by others and their saying about him or her. f. Reaction The readers are able to obtained information about the character by analyzing his or her reactions while facing some events, incidents, or cases. g. Direct comment This method will be easier than the other since the author gives the description about the characters directly. h. Thoughts In this case, the author describes the character of a character through his or her thoughts that may be presented from the speech or attitude. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI i. Mannerism The characters are described by the author through their mannerisms, habits, or idiosyncrasies. According to Abrams, however, there are two methods of characterization: showing or dramatic method and telling method. In the first method, the author presents the characters talking and acting and leaves the reader to infer what motives and dispositions lay behind what they say and do. Whereas, in the second method, the author intervenes authoritatively in order to describe, and often to evaluate, the motives and dispositional qualities of the characters 1981:21. 2. Theory of Conflict Conflict is the most significant element and the essence of plot which is also considered as a necessary element in fiction. The reason that conflict is the major ingredient in a plot is that once two forces are in opposition, there may be doubt about the outcome. The doubt, if the readers become interested and engaged with the characters, produces curiosity and also tension. The interest of a highly contested game is also generated by a conflict in a story. The conflict should be a contest, an engagement between characters or forces of approximately equal strength. The point is that unless there is doubt there is tension, and unless there is tension there is no interest Roberts and Jacobs, 1989:99. Further, Virgil Scott adds that conflict must be handled in certain ways in order to make it convincing and effective. Therefore, he writes in his book Studies in the Short Stories basic principles that should be noticed by a writer if they want to arouse and maintain a reader’s interest in a story. First, the conflict in a story must be significant. It means that as a result of given conflict, the character or characters involved there will never again be quite the same people as they were before the incident occurred. Second, there must be a unity of the conflict, the characters, the theme, the symbols, and the point of view, and the other literary devices. They must be interrelated, functional, and necessary to achieving the story’s basic purpose or effect. Unity, in the term of conflict, means that each development in the conflict of a story must follow logically and inevitably from the preceding development 1968:3-4. There are various ways used by the author to arrange the events. In the narrative structure, the author will usually begin the story by giving the reader information which he must have before he can understand the conflict that follows. This part is called exposition. The section called the rising actions follows just after the exposition. Here, the author proceeds to introduce the complication or conflict. The resolution or denouement takes place after that. It is the climax that will be the turning point of the action which will lead to that section. The reader will be led to an understanding of some kind of disclosure Rohrberger and Woods, 1971:21. Such this plot above is noted by Koesnosoebroto in his book The Anatomy of Prose Fiction as the conventional plot. This type of plot places conflict at the core of it 1988:43. Rohrberger and Woods suggest us that conflict is not only a struggle between people. The protagonist may be in conflict with fate, the gods, environment, and even with a part of himself with conflicting value systems or PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI desires. Another possibility is that his inner conflict may be in objectified in a conflict with someone or something outside himself. The same idea is contributed by Koesnosoebroto by claiming that a conflict may be physical, moral, psychological, intellectual, or spiritual contest between antagonistic forces. What he means by antagonistic forces are internal conflict between aspects of the personality or external conflict between a person and external forces such as another person, society, environment, nature, the universe, and God. He then specifies his explanation by employing the types of conflict that he adopts from other writer. Below are those types of conflict: a. a conflict of man-against-man when the main character is pitted against some other some other person or group of persons b. a conflict of man-against-environment when the main character is confronted against some external forces physical nature, society, or fate c. a conflict of man-against-himself the internal conflict when the main character is confronted against some elements in his own nature Moreover, he states: “An external conflict may be a projection of internal conflict. Whatever, a major function of conflict is to clarify the issue or problem. At moments of great conflict, characters reveal themselves more clearly, plot moves through its most significant action, and theme arises most evidently from its context 1988:43.” The term internal and external conflicts are also deployed by Redman in categorizing conflict. Internal or inner conflict refers to a struggle within the heart and mind of the protagonist. While external conflict refers to a struggle between the protagonist and an outside force. In his opinion, conflict is resolved when one PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI force usually the protagonist succeeds or fails in overcoming the opposing force. The protagonist sometimes gives up the struggle as too difficult or not worthwhile 1964:363. Holman and Harmon also contribute four different kinds of conflict. They are a struggle against nature, a struggle against another person usually the antagonist, a struggle against society, and a struggle for mastery by two elements within the person 1986: 107. Meanwhile, Stanton affirms that internal conflict, external conflict, or even both of them reduce to the central conflict. The central conflict is the core of the story’s structure or the generating center out of which the plots grows. It is possible to have more than one conflict or force in the story, still the central conflict that fully accounts for the events of the plot. The central conflict of a story, therefore, is intimately related to its theme. In the other words, both of them may be identical 1965:16. 3. Theory of Message One of the purposes why a literary work is written by an author is to offer kind of ideal life the author expects. It contains of moral application in the chara cter’s attitude. Through the story and the character’s attitude, the readers then are expected to be able to take lesson from the moral values that are delivered. Moral, in a literary work, can be viewed as message Nurgiyantoro, 2007:321. Message is something that the author would like to convey to the reader. It is the meaning of the story or the meaning that is suggested through the story. Message is sometimes considered identical with theme since both of them are something contained in the story and can be interpreted from the story. However, message and theme do not always refer to the same thing. Theme is different from moral in that it is not only more complex than moral but also does not have meaning or direct value as suggestion for the reader. Hence, message or moral can be judged as one form of theme but in the simple way. It should be noticed then that not all theme are message Nurgiyantoro, 2007:320. The same concept is told by Stanton by stating that theme contains reevaluation or judgment of moral or message direct or indirectly 1965:4, 19 and message can be seen as one form of theme 1966:899. Meanwhile, Beaty and Hunter try to assert the difference between theme and message more clearly, “While message seeks to inform and convince, theme seeks to have you comprehend and empathize, so that the information or the ideas are less directly articulated, or more broadly accessible 1989:899.” It is revealed by Roman Jacobson as quoted by Jeremy Hawthorn in A Concise Glossary of Contemporary Literature that sending the message is the general function of language. Therefore, it needs several requirements in order to be more operative. There are six factors that determine the effectiveness of message those are addressers who sends the message, the message itself, addressee who receives the message, context in which the message referred to, code being used for the meaning of a particular word, and contact both physical or psychological connection between addresser and addressee to stay in communication. “The addresser sends a message to the addressee. To be operative the message requires a context referred to, sizable by the addressee, and either verbal or capable of being verbalized; a code fully, or at least partially, common to the addresser and ad dressee…, and finally a contact , a physical channel and psychological connection between the addresser and the addressee, enabling both of them to enter and stay in communication Hawthorn, 1992: 73- 74.” The message or moral that is offered in the literary work, especially fiction, is always related to human’s noble characters and has universal characteristic. Its universality means that it does not only refer to individual or a group of people but also to the all human being in this universe. Therefore, the truth will be accepted universally. Furthermore, we should be aware that the message in the fiction conforms to the nature of human being characters and not to the rules or regulation which are created, determined, and judged by human being. Besides, the message of fiction is not always in accordance with the religion law since fiction indeed is not religion Nurgiyantoro, 2007:322. According to Nurgiyantoro, a novel can propose more than one message. Still there will be major and minor message. Kinds of messages or moral themselves may includes conflicts owned by human being i.e. the conflict between man and himself, the conflict between man and other people or nature, and the conflicts between man and God. The reader’s task is to recognize and take lesson from the messages then Nurgiyantoro, 2007: 333-334. Therefore, the reader needs to recognize the author’s method in delivering the message. For practical reason, Nurgiyantoro mentions that the message can be delivered by the author through direct and indirect form. Direct form means the message is conveyed directly and explicitly by the author. Here, the author seems to teach the reader and gives his advice straightly. This method is communicative in that the reader enable to understand and comprehend what the author intends to say easily 2007:335-336. In comparison to the previous form, indirect form means the message is implied in the story and fuse coherently with the other elements of the story. This method allows the reader to determine his own message. Unlike the direct method, the indirect method is less communicative in that the reader can not always able to reach the author’s intention. Therefore, it may cause misunderstanding 2007: 339-340.

C. Review on Harlem

Harlem is a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Manhattan that has been long known as a major black cultural and business center. It stretches from the East River to the Hudson River. However, the history began as the first European, Hendrick de Forest, and the Dutch settlers came there in 1637. The area was repeatedly savaged by Native Americans, leading many Dutch to abandon it. The settlement was formalized then in 1058 as Nieuw Harlem New Harlem after the Dutch city of Harlem under the leadership of Peter Suyvesant. Harlem was a synonym for elegant living through a good part of the nineteenth century. In the early years of that century, Harlem remained a place of farms. As late as 1820, the community had only 91 families. In 1811, New York City NYC planning commission opined that Harlem would not be developed for PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI over a hundred years. The New York and Harlem Railroad now Metro North was incorporated in 1831 to better link the city with the suburb. In the years between about 1850-1870, he village of Harlem declined. Many large estates were auction off as the soil was depleted and the corps yields fell. Recovery came when elevated railroads were extended to Harlem in 1880. With the construction of the ells, urbanized development occurred very rapidly with townhouses, apartments, and tenements springing up practically overnight. However, the construction glut and a delay in the building of the subway led to a fall in real estate price with attracted Eastern European Jews to Harlem in large number in 1917. Presaging the later response to the arrival of black Harlemist, existing landowners tried to stop Jews from moving in to the neighborhood. Small groups of black people lived in Harlem as early as 1880. The mass immigration of blacks into the area begin in 1904, thanks to another real estate crash, the worsening of condition for blacks elsewhere in the city, and the leadership of black real estate entrepreneur named Phillip Payton, Jr. Harlem experienced another real estate bust in 1904-1905; after the collapse of the 1890, new speculation and construction started up again in 1903 and the resulting glut of housing led to a crash in values that eclipsed the late 19 th century slowdown. Landlords could not find white renters for their properties so Phillip Payton stepped in to bring black. During World War I, black laborers were actively recruited to leave the southern US and work in northern factories, thinly staffed because of the war. So many came that it threatened the very existence of some of the leading industries of Georgia, Tennessee, and Alabama. Many came to Harlem. By 1920, central Harlem was predominantly black and by 1930 blacks lived as far south at Central Park. The expansion was fueled primarily by the influx of blacks from West Indies and Southern US. As blacks moved in, white resident left. The period of Harlem’s history has been highly romanticized since the 1920 then although it was the time when the neighborhood to become a slum and some of the storied traditions of the Harlem Renaissance were driven by poverty, crime, or other social ills. Indeed, since the arrival of blacks in Harlem, the neighborhood has suffered from the unemployment than the NY average generally more than twice as high and high mortality rates as well. The people also suffer from infectious disease and diseases of the circulatory system with a variety of contributing factors including the deep fried foods traditional to the neighborhood which may contribute to heart disease. Yet, black Harlem has always been religious, and the area is home to over 400 churches. Furthermore, it is not surprisingly, as a neighborhood with a long history of marginalization economic deprivation, Harlem has long been associated with crime. In the 1920’s, he Jewish and Italian mafia played a major role in running the white- only night clubs in the neighborhood and the speakeasies that catered to a white audience. Mobster Dutch Shultz controlled all liquor production and distribution in Harlem in 1920’s. Rather than compete with the established mobs, black gangsters concentrated on the policy racket, also called the Numbers game, or bolita in Spanish Harlem. This was gambling scheme similar to a lottery that could be played, illegally, from countless locations around Harlem. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI