• the extent to which coping attempts are succeeding Broom and Johnson, 1993. The implications of this definition are numerous:
• Welfare is a characteristic of the animal, not something given to it. Consequently, although welfare is affected by what freedoms are given to individuals and the needs of these individuals,
it is not necessary to refer to these when specifying welfare; • Welfare is a continuum, varying from very poor to very good. Logically, an animal’s welfare is
poor when it is having difficulty in coping, or is failing to cope, with its environment; • Pain and suffering are important aspects of poor welfare;
• Animals use a variety of methods when trying to cope with their environment; and • Welfare can be measured scientifically Broom and Johnson, 1993.
This definition is somewhat at odds with earlier models for animal welfare, including the concept of ‘the five freedoms’, namely freedom from 1 hunger and thirst; 2 discomfort; 3 pain, injury and
disease; 4 fear and distress; and freedom to 5 display normal behaviour Independent Reference Group, 2002. These concepts, while helpful, are now considered to provide a conceptual guide for
the design of animal environments Ewing et al., 1999, rather than a definition of welfare per se. To assess whether an essential level of a freedom has been met, it is first necessary to determine what
the ‘essential’ level is, and then to objectively measure whether this has been achieved.
Animal welfare can be considered to include animal health because pathogens or pathogen-inducing circumstances have an important impact on the interaction between an individual and its environment
Broom and Johnson, 1993. Animal health is defined as a state of physical and psychological well- being and of productivity including reproduction Blood and Studdert, 1988. Logically, indicators of
good or poor health are also indicators of good or poor welfare Broom and Johnson, 1993.
SUMMARY: Animal welfare refers to the state of an individual as it attempts to cope with its environment. Welfare includes animal health, given the important impact of
pathogens or pathogen-inducing circumstances on the environment of an individual. Indicators of good and poor health are also indicators of good and poor welfare.
2.2.2.2 Animal health and welfare during live export
Animal health and welfare but particularly welfare is perhaps the most-important issue currently facing the live export industry. Although the industry has been under scrutiny for many years, the
intensity of community concern about live export has been heightened over the last 12 months following a number of recent incidents and as a consequence of increased air-play. Animal welfare
during live export is now a common topic in the national media, including the ABC and Sixty Minutes.
According to opponents of the industry, the trade ‘subjects millions of animals to cruel and inhumane practices within Australia, on the journey overseas and at their final destination’
7
. The RSPCA has highlighted a number of specific concerns including ‘excessive journey times, the poor husbandry
conditions and inherently cruel slaughter and transport conditions in importing countries’.
7
Media Release 28 July 2003. RSPCA website, www.rspca.org.au
25
SUMMARY: Animal welfare is perhaps the most-important issue currently facing the live export trade. Opposition to the industry in Australia is almost-entirely based on
animal welfare concerns.
2.2.2.3 Assessing animal health and welfare
In order to assess, manage andor modify animal health and welfare, it is necessary first to be able to measure it. A range of methods are now available Broom and Johnson, 1993; Ewing et al., 1999,
including:
A. Behavioural and physiological evaluation • Behavioural: Preference tests; orientation, startle and reflex responses; responses to pain;
movement difficulties, movement prevention; consequences of frustration and lack of control including aggression, stereotypies, apathy and unresponsiveness
• Physiological: Heart rate; respiratory rate and body temperature; assessment of the adrenal axes, particularly the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal stress-response; general neural response,
including neurotransmitters; enzymes and metabolic products; muscle and other characteristics; measures of immune system function, including white cell numbers, antibody production, T-
lymphocyte function
B. Evaluation of production practices and performance • Production practices: Critical evaluation of specific production practices
• Performance: Reproductive success, life expectancy, weight changes, disease and injury incidence measures.
C. Evaluation of environmental design • Critical evaluation of all aspects of the environment, including physical, dietary and social.
SUMMARY: A range of methods are used to assess animal welfare, including behavioural and physiological evaluation, evaluation of production practices and
performance, and evaluation of environmental design.
2.2.2.4 Assessing animal health and welfare during live export
