SOME EFFORTS FOR IMPROVING DEGRADED PEATLAND IN THE BERBAK DELTA, JAMBI, INDONESIA
PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM
AND WORKSHOP ON TROPICAL PEATLAND
YOGYAKARTA, 27-29 AUGUST 2007
CARBON-CLIMATE-HUMAN INTERACTIONS ON TROPICAL PEATLAND:
CARBON POOLS, FIRE, MITIGATION, RESTORATION AND WISE USE
Editors
J.O. Rieley
School of Geography, University of Nottingham, United Kingdom
C.J. Banks
Department of Geography, University of Leicester, United Kingdom
Bostang Ragjagukguk
Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia
Published by:
CARBOPEAT
Department of Geography
University of Leicester
University Road
Leicester
United Kingdom
PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL
SYMPOSIUM AND WORKSHOP ON TROPICAL
PEATLAND
YOGYAKARTA, 27-29 AUGUST 2007
CARBON-CLIMATE-HUMAN INTERACTIONS
ON TROPICAL PEATLAND: CARBON POOLS, FIRE, MITIGATION,
RESTORATION AND WISE USE
Editors
John O. Rieley
School of Geography, University of Nottingham,
United Kingdom
Christopher J. Banks
Department of Geography, University of Leicester, United Kingdom
Bostang Ragjagukguk
Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia
FIRST POSTED ON INTERNET: OCTOBER 2007
Published by the Department of Geography, University of Leicester on behalf of the EU INCO
CARBOPEAT and RESTORPEAT Partnerships and Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia
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Recommended form of citation:
Rieley, J.O., Banks, C.J. and Radjagukguk, B. (2007) Carbon-climate-human interaction on tropical
peatland. Proceedings of The International Symposium and Workshop on Tropical Peatland,
Yogyakarta, 27-29 August 2007, EU CARBOPEAT and RESTORPEAT Partnership, Gadjah Mada
University, Indonesia and University of Leicester, United Kingdom.
Downloadable from the Internet:
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INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM AND WORKSHOP ON TROPICAL PEATLAND
YOGYAKARTA, INDONESIA 27-29 AUGUST 2007
“Carbon-Climate-Human Interactions - Carbon Pools, Fire, Mitigation, Restoration and Wise Use”
Venue: Hyatt Regency Hotel, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Organized by:
Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia
Indonesian Peat Association (International Peat Society)
Funding Sponsors:
Embassy of Finland, Jakarta
Embassy of the Netherlands, Jakarta
EU CARBOPEAT and RESTORPEAT Projects
Vapo, Finland, BPPT and UGM, Indonesia
APRIL and Sinarmas
Partners:
EU INCO CARBOPEAT and RESTORPEAT Partnerships
Kalimantan Tropical Peat Swamp Forest Research Project (KALTROP), Universities of Nottingham
and Leicester, UK, Palangka Raya, Indonesia and Hokkaido, Japan
Centre for International Cooperation in Sustainable Management of Tropical Peatland (CIMTROP),
University of Palangka Raya, Indonesia
Indonesian Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology (BPPT), Indonesia
Centre for Sustainable Management of Natural Resources (SUSTAIN), University of Leicester, UK
Centre for Environmental Management (CEM), University of Nottingham, UK
Alterra, University of Wageningen and Research Centre, The Netherlands
International Peat Society
Indonesian Peat Association
Pt. Sinar Mas Forestry
Pt. Aprilasia
i
INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM AND WORKSHOP ON TROPICAL PEATLAND
YOGYAKARTA, INDONESIA 27-29 AUGUST 2007
“Carbon-Climate-Human Interactions - Carbon Pools, Fire, Mitigation, Restoration and Wise
Use”
Organizing Committee
Ex-officio
Prof. Susamto Somowiyarjo
Advisor
Dr.Abdul Syukur
Chairman
Prof. Bostang Radjagukguk
Secretary
Dr. Benito Heru Purwanto
Secretariat
Mr. Nasih Widya Yuwono
Mr. Nyahu Rumbang
Mr. Sunarto
Mr. Wirawan Setiadi
Mr. Yudha Purbawa
Treasurers
Mrs Sri Wedhastri
Mrs Tri Utami
Sessions
Dr. Bambang Djadmo Kertonegoro
Dr. Dja'far Shiddieq
Mr. Sulakhudin
Miss Rr. Kurnia Dewi Sasmita
Papers & Proceedings
Dr. Syamsul Arifin Siradz
Dr. Bambang Hendro Sunarminto
Mr. Ahmad Baihaki
Excursions
Dr. Suwido Limin
Mr. Ruly E.K. Kurniawan
Venue & Transportation
Dr. Eko Hanudin
Mr. Suci Handayani
Accommodation, Meals & Refreshments
Mrs. Sri Nuryani
Mrs. Cahyo Wulandari
International Steering Committee
Chairman
Prof. Jack Rieley, United Kingdom
Vice Chairman
Dr. Bambang Setiadi, Indonesia
Secretary
Dr. Suwido Limin
Members
Dr. Susan Page
Mr. Marcel Silvius
Prof. Bostang Radjagukguk
Prof. Fachrurrozie Sjarkowi
Prof. Florian Siegert
Prof. Daniel Murdiyarso
Prof. Murtedza Mohamed
Mr. Ismail Abu Bakar
Dr. Henk Wosten
Dr. Hidenori Takahashi
iii
CONTENTS
Contents .......................................................................................................................................... v
Editors' Preface.............................................................................................................................. ix
Outline Programme........................................................................................................................ xi
Opening Addresses ..................................................................................................................... xix
Statement Issued by Participants ............................................................................................ xxix
Viewpoint of the Indonesian Peat Association on carbon-peat-peatland forest-fire and
climate change .......................................................................................................................... xxxv
Extended abstracts of oral presentations ............................................................................ xxxvii
Tropical peatland - The amazing dual ecosystem: co-existence and mutual benefit (J.O. Rieley)1
The ‘wise use’ process and tropical peatlands (Donal Clarke) ................................................... 15
Tropical peatlands: distribution, extent and carbon storage – uncertainties and knowledge gaps
(Susan Page et al.)...................................................................................................................... 19
Peatland evolution in Southeast Asia during the last 35,000 cal years: implications for evaluating
their carbon storage potential (Raphael Wust et al.)................................................................... 25
Uncertainties in mapping the area of peatland and estimating the depth and volume of peat in
Central Kalimantan, Indonesia (Martin Stahlhut and John Rieley).............................................. 41
Montane and alpine peatlands of New Guinea (Geoffrey Hope) ................................................ 51
The importance of ecological monitoring for habitat management - a case study in the Sabangau
Forest, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia (Simon Husson et al.) .................................................... 59
Conservation status; threats and opportunities for the west coast swamp forests of Aceh (Ian
Singleton).................................................................................................................................... 67
The chemical characteristics and environmental significance of humic substances in the tropical
peat of Sarawak (Murtedza Mohamed & Sim Siong Fong)......................................................... 71
Mineral nutrient content of water at different depths in peatland in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia
(Y. Sulistiyanto et al.) .................................................................................................................. 77
Peat swamp forest regeneration using green belts in a timber estate in Riau, Sumatra, Indonesia
(Haris Gunawan et al.) ................................................................................................................ 83
Increase in pH of peat soil by microbial treatment (Diana Nurani et al.) ..................................... 89
Some Characteristics of peat in Loagan Bunut National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Alexander K
Sayok et al.) ................................................................................................................................ 95
Tropical peat carbon pools and water management: discussion of current investigations and
important considerations to achieve reduction of CO2 emissions through mitigative water
management (Aljosja Hooijer et al.) .......................................................................................... 101
Implications of groundwater level fluctuations for a tropical peatland ecosystem in Southeast
Asia (J.H.M. Wösten et al.) ....................................................................................................... 111
The role of drainage in the wise use of tropical peatlands (H.P. Ritzema) ............................... 117
Understanding the growth strategies of tropical peat swamp forest tree species: establishing
potential restoration tools (Laura Graham et al.)....................................................................... 125
Potent phosphate-solubilizing bacteria isolated from dipterocarps grown in peat swamp forest in
Central Kalimantan and their possible utilization for biorehabilitation of degraded peatland
(Irnayuli R. Sitepu et al.)............................................................................................................ 133
Developing soil and water indicators for sustainable forest management of peat swamp forest in
Indonesia (Sukresno) ................................................................................................................ 139
Effect of ectomycorrhizal fungi inoculated on Shorea Balangeran under field conditions in peatswamp forests (Maman Turjaman et al.)................................................................................... 143
Carbon flux controls and land use change in tropical peatland (Jauhiainen, J. et al.) .............. 149
Carbon flow and budget in a young mature oil palm agroecosystem on deep tropical peat (Lulie
Melling et al.)............................................................................................................................. 153
GSE forest monitoring - development of an operational service for greenhouse gas (GHG)
accounting in tropical forests in SE Asia (Claudius Mott and Florian Siegert) .......................... 159
Spatio-temporal development of selected arthropod families on developing peatland ecosystem:
Their value as an agri-environment indicator. (Mohd. Norowi et al.)......................................... 165
v
Sustainable livelihood of peatland dwellers in the Mukah Watershed, Sarawak, Malaysia (Peter
Songan et al.)............................................................................................................................ 171
Poverty alleviation projects on peatland in Indonesia (Yus Rusila Noor et al.) ......................... 177
The role of fire in the degradation of tropical peatlands: a case study from Central Kalimantan
(A. Hoscilo et al.)....................................................................................................................... 187
Biological effects of smoke from dry-season fires in non-burnt areas of the Sabangau peat
swamp forest, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia (Mark Harrison et al.)........................................ 191
Successful helicopter flight trials with airborne laser scanning technology to measure peat
swamp forest height and peat domes in Central Kalimantan (Boehm et al.) ............................ 195
Peatlands, climate change, poverty, biofuels, pulp and reduced emissions from deforestation
and degradation (Marcel Silvius & Herbert Diemont)................................................................ 203
Renewable energy and peatland (Betty Tio Minar)................................................................... 213
Restoration of hydrological status as the key to rehabilitation of damaged peatland in Central
Kalimantan (Suwido H. Limin et al.) .......................................................................................... 217
Extended abstracts of poster presentations ............................................................................ 225
Effect of land-use management on greenhouse gas emissions from tropical peatlands (Kazuyuki
Inubushi and Abdul Hadi).......................................................................................................... 227
Some efforts for improving degraded peatland in the Berbak Delta, Jambi, Indonesia (Suwardi et
al.) ............................................................................................................................................. 231
Using remote sensing for evaluating the change of peat-swamp forest in the Mekong Delta,
Vietnam (Vo Quang Minh et al.)................................................................................................ 237
Some considerations of tropical peat for energy (Basuki Sumawinata et al.) ........................... 243
Reducing emissions from peatland deforestation and degradation: carbon emission and
opportunity costs (Fahmuddin Agus et al.)................................................................................ 249
Arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi application for rehabilitation of degraded peat swamp forest in
Central Kalimantan (Tri Wira Yuwati et al.) ............................................................................... 253
Density and biomass of chironomid larvae in a peat channel in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia
(Yulintine et al.) ......................................................................................................................... 259
“SEVER-FIRE”: some problems in representation of tropical fires and conceptual ideas how to
solve these problems (Sergey Venevsky and Yannick Le Page) .............................................. 267
Decomposition of wood materials in a tropical peat swamp forest (Tetsuya Shimamura and
Kuniyasu Momose) ................................................................................................................... 271
Carbon dioxide emission from peatland in relation to hydrology, peat moisture, humification at
the Vodoi National Park, Vietnam (Duong Minh Vien et al.) ..................................................... 277
Plant and fish biodiversity in Voi Doi National Park, U Minh Ha, Mekong Delta (Barry Clough et
al.) ............................................................................................................................................. 283
Short abstracts of other presentations..................................................................................... 289
Biomass content and biodiversity of tropical peat swamp forest under various land cover
conditions (Adi Jaya)................................................................................................................. 289
Fire on tropical peatland in Indonesia - extent, frequency and impact (Florian Siegert) ........... 289
Ten Years of post-fire plant succession in the Badas Peat Swamp, Brunei (Hajah Dulima Jali)
.................................................................................................................................................. 290
Restoration of degraded peatlands through damming techniques (Alue Dohong) ................... 290
Peatland and sustainable lifelihood in Central Kalimantan (Fachrurrozie Sjarkowi) ................. 291
Pattern of utilization of non-timber forest products among local communities in peatland areas:
case analysis of two communities in Sarawak (Gabriel Tonga Noweg).................................... 291
Integrated spatial development plan for sustainable peatland in pontianak surroundings (Mira
Sophia Lubis) ............................................................................................................................ 292
Fires, peat lands and pulp: The potential of large scale pulp wood plantations in reducing green
house gas emissions, haze pollution and generating sustainable social economic development
for local people. A case study from South Sumatra, Indonesia (Brian Sawyer)........................ 292
Effect of soil moisture and land-use management in tropical peatlands on microbial population
and greenhouse gas emissions (Abdul Hadi) ........................................................................... 293
Geomorphological study of peat swamp in Kampar Peninsula, Riau (Darmawan)................... 293
Nematodes associated with pineapple grown on peat and the prospects for control (Nik Masdek
Hassan)..................................................................................................................................... 294
A methodology for estimating avoided emissions from the conservation of peat forests (Sarah
Walker)...................................................................................................................................... 294
vi
Addressing peatland conversion and fires in Indonesia through appropriate REDD policy and
mechanism (Yumiko Uryu)........................................................................................................ 294
The abundance of aquatic macrophytes in tidal sulfaquept of unplanted rice field in South
Kalimantan (Tjut Sugandawaty Djohan).................................................................................... 295
AIR-Co / Asia-Europe collaboration in knowledge and research on integrated water resources
management (Henk Ritzema) ................................................................................................... 295
Influence of soil sampling and preparation method on soil analysis results (Sri Nuryani H.U) . 296
Appendix 1 - Explanation of confernce logo ............................................................................ 297
vii
Proceedings of the International Symposium and Workshop on Tropical Peatland, Yogyakarta, 27-29 August 2007
Carbon-climate-human interactions on tropical peatland: carbon pools, fire, mitigation, restoration and wise use
SOME EFFORTS FOR IMPROVING DEGRADED PEATLAND IN THE
BERBAK DELTA, JAMBI, INDONESIA
(SUWARDI ET AL.)
Suwardi, Darmawan, Gunawan Djajakirana and Basuki Sumawinata
Department of Soil Science and Land Resources, Bogor Agricultural University
Jl. Meranti, Kampus IPB, Darmaga, Bogor, Indonesia
Email: suwardi_bogor@yahoo.com
SUMMARY
Reclamation of peatland of Indonesia has been carried out during the last 35 years for rice
production through transmigration projects. One of the transmigration areas is located in the
Berbak Delta, Jambi Province, Sumatra. In the early years, those lands produced rice grain up to 5
tons/ha. However, because the soils have changed into acid sulfate soils production has
decreased drastically to less than 1 ton/ha. This paper presents the results of some efforts to
improve degraded peatland for rice cultivation in the rainy season and chili cultivation after rice
harvesting through application of macro- and micronutrients as well as water management. In their
home gardens, farmers are encouraged to plant Aquilaria sp. (gaharu) for long-term family income.
KEYWORDS: acid sulfate soils, Aquilaria sp (gaharu), rice cultivation, tropical peatland
INTRODUCTION
Efforts to renovate degraded peatland in Indonesia by the Government have been carried out
through many projects. Amongst these projects were canal maintenance through deepening of
primary and secondary canals and provision of production goods through provision of fertilizers,
pesticides, soil tillage equipment, and credit.
One degraded peatland area is located in the Berbak Delta of Jambi Province where about
60,000 ha of the area has changed into acid sulfate soils. In the early stage of reclamation, rice
production of the land reached 5 tons/ha, but gradually decreased thereafter to a production of less
then 1 ton/ha. Nowadays some farmers are still continuing rice cultivation with low production,
while some others have abandoned their lands.
Most of scientific suggestions say that there are several reasons for the unsuccessful
renovation of acid sulfate soil including extreme acidity of soil and water, extreme soil drying in the
dry season, and prolonged flooding in the rainy season. Our field observations, however, strongly
suggested that there is still a possibility to make renovation of the agricultural land in order to
create various incomes for the farmers. Farmers have enough time to generate income from other
activities in addition to cultivating rice as their main income, such as planting vegetable crops after
rice and planting high economic value plants in their home gardens. Chili is one recommended
vegetables for these areas because it attracts a relatively good price. Gaharu (Aquilaria sp) was
selected for long term income generation and it can be planted in their home gardens.
This paper discusses mainly our experiences in implementing rice and chili cultivation as well
as gaharu planting in home gardens on abandoned acid sulfate soils in Rantau Rasau District in
Berbak Delta, Jambi Province.
LOCATION OF RICE, CHILI AND GAHARU CULTIVATION
Rice cultivation was carried out on 100 hectares of farmer lands in Rantau Makmur village
(Figure 1) from August 2005 to March 2006 involving 60 families. Each family cultivated either 1.0,
1.5, or 2.0 hectares depended on the size of the land they owned and the availability of workers.
The implementation of rice cultivation was carried out in collaboration with Jambi Provincial
Government.
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Carbon-climate-human interactions on tropical peatland: carbon pools, fire, mitigation, restoration and wise use
Some farmers out of the 60 families cultivated chili in the dry season after the rice planting
period in Rantau Makmur village. The size of the chili cultivation plots of each farmer varied
depending on availability of capital and workers.
The cultivation of Aquilaria sp involved 500 farmers in the 3 villages of Rantau Rasau II,
Bandar Jaya, and Rasau Jaya. The planting of Gaharu was done in collaboration with NPO MOYAI
Network JAPAN, the National Land Afforestation Promotion Organization.
Figure 1 Location of the study area in Rantau Makmur village
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Soil properties
Before reclamation the area was a peat swamp forest with a thin layer of peat (< 50 cm depth).
This peat layer was underlain by mangrove mud containing a high amount of pyrite mineral. After
years of reclamation and utilization, the peat layer has almost disappeared leaving a peaty clay
layer 0 to 20 cm at the surface.
Soil analysis using method from Sparks et al. (1996) shows that the mangrove mud sediment
in this area developed from materials transported from higher regions, which are mainly composed
of acidic rocks with relatively low Fe2O3 content. Sample analyses show that the sediment is rich in
sulphur and very low in Fe2O3. Pyrite content (represented by S content) in the top layer (0-40 cm)
was very low at only about 0.6% compared to a much higher content in the sub surface layer that
contains up to more than 2%. Like the S content, the content of Fe2O3 in the top layer was much
lower than that in the subsurface layer. These data confirmed that most of the pyrite in the top
layer has been oxidized. Soil chemical characteristics of the oxidized layer are presented in Table
1. The table shows that at depth of 0-5 cm, the soil was characterized by very low pH (4.2), low
content of exchangeable bases, and very high exchangeable Al (16 meq/100g).
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Proceedings of the International Symposium and Workshop on Tropical Peatland, Yogyakarta, 27-29 August 2007
Carbon-climate-human interactions on tropical peatland: carbon pools, fire, mitigation, restoration and wise use
Table 1 Soil characteristics of rice fields in Rantau Makmur
Depth (cm)
0-5
5-9
9-15
15-20
20-25
25-30
30-35
35-40
pH H2O
4.19
4.90
4.13
4.21
4.22
4.30
4.29
4.23
Exchangeable bases (meq/100g)
Ca
Mg
K
1.11
1.04
0.92
0.81
0.91
0.82
0.86
0.82
3.09
2.75
1.92
1.99
2.38
2.06
1.80
1.94
0.08
0.08
0.10
0.07
0.08
0.08
0.09
0.10
Exch. Al (meq/100g)
CEC
Base sat
(meq/100)
(%)
Na
0.13
0.13
0.15
0.12
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.13
15.6
16.8
13.4
12.7
16.9
17.3
14.7
16.2
59.98
69.81
70.80
71.78
60.28
60.96
49.16
54.08
7.35
5.72
4.36
4.18
5.78
5.03
5.80
5.53
Rice Growth and Production
In the early stage, rice growth showed a good performance except in locations close to canal
reconstruction. In general, at the following stage rice plant growth was not good, indicated by
yellowish leaf color; and weeds grew in almost all of the fields. There was also damage to the rice
plants as a result of attack by birds, wild boars and rats.
Three rice varieties were planted in the study areas (Table 2). The certified IR-42 occupied
about 75.3 ha, certified Batanghari occupied 10.5 ha and Semut, a local variety, occupied (5.8 ha).
This proportion was not planned but was determined by the amounts of both certified varieties IR42 and Batanghari provided by the local government. Farmers themselves provided the Semut
variety to make up for the lack of the two certified seed varieties.
Figure 2 Land was abandoned after more than 15 years of rice cultivation; this trial has
again yielded up to 5 tons/ha, by applying water management and appropriate technology.
Cultivation of chili after rice harvesting also shows a promising result.
Table 2 Dry rice grain production in the 100 ha pilot project.
Rice variety
Planting area (ha)
Average rice Production (ton/ha)
IR-42
Batanghari
Semut
75.3
10.5
5.8
3.5
3.1
2.7
The highest average rice yield was obtained for IR-42 (3.5 ton/ha) and the lowest was
obtained for Semut (2.7 ton/ha). A relatively good yield of IR-42 and Batanghari varieties were
obtained because there was no flooding during the rice growth period, as the rainy season of that
year was late. Usually, the first rain falls in September, but in 2005 the rain was still rare until
October-November and therefore the big flooding expected in December 2005 and January 2006
did not occur. Thus, the rain pattern in 2005/06, fortunately, was suitable for IR-42 and Batanghari
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Proceedings of the International Symposium and Workshop on Tropical Peatland, Yogyakarta, 27-29 August 2007
Carbon-climate-human interactions on tropical peatland: carbon pools, fire, mitigation, restoration and wise use
varieties, but rice production of these varieties cannot be used as a reference for the next planting
in the same season (Suwardi, et al., 2006).
The Semut production of only 2.7 ton/ha was lower than our result in the same location but in
a smaller plot in 2004/05 that reached 4-5 ton/ha. The lower production can be explained by
several reasons. Most of the Semut variety was planted in plots of secondary canal having
stronger acidity due to nearer to Batanghari River so they have been more affected by high pH of
water from the river. In general, rice production of plots in SC-5 was lower than SC-6, and SC-7.
Moreover, most of IR-42 and Batanghari plots in SC-5 performed worse than Semut. The other
factors that probably contributed to low rice production were late rice transplanting and poor land
preparation.
Chili Cultivation.
After rice harvesting farmers have enough time to undertake other activities to increase their
income generation. Some farmers have started to cultivate chili in part of their land after growing
rice (Figure 2). They chose chili because it is relatively easy to cultivate and it fetches quite a high
price. Farmers usually obtain more money from cultivation of chili than from rice production.
Obstacles to chili cultivation are a lack of capital and labour. Chili cultivation requires quite a high
level of investment to purchase seed, organic and chemical fertilizers and pesticides but also for
intensive land preparation and maintenance. Endowment of capital and carrying out cultivation in a
co-operative system are possible to improve and enlarge the chili cultivation area.
Because of labour and financial constraints, one farmer can optimally cultivate chili on only
0.25 ha of land. With good practices, however, the area of 0.25 ha could produce up to 2 tonnes of
chili with a marketable value of 8 million Rupiah. Half of the income will be reinvested as capital.
Gaharu Planting in Farmer Gardens.
Gaharu is a non timber forest product, which has high economic value because it has many uses
but especially for religious rituals. Gaharu (Aquilaria sp) is a woody perennial plant having high
economic value for the gaharu resin it produces. This resin produces a good-smell when burnt. Not
all gaharu plants grown in the forest produce gaharu resin; it depends on infection of a certain
fungus. There is a specific technique for inoculating the fungi into the gaharu plant to obtain the
best result.
Up to now, gaharu was mostly collected by people from natural plants inside wet tropical
forest but this continuous extraction has caused the availability of gaharu to decrease drastically.
Meanwhile, demand for the resin from countries in Asia and the Middle East, such as Japan, India,
China, Saudi Arabia, has increased. Therefore, it is very important to produce gaharu resin by
cultivating Aquilaria trees in order to supply this demand.
Regarding the benefit of gaharu plantations and considering the environmental suitability of
this study area for gaharu plantation, we have tried to collaborate with farmers to cultivate gaharu
in their home gardens. Small gaharu seedlings were obtained from Sarolangun, Jambi in March
2nd, 2005 and were grown with care for 6 months under paranet cover (Figure 3). After the
seedlings reached about 50 cm height, and were strong enough, they were distributed to the
farmers who transplanted them into their home gardens. Seven thousand gaharu seedlings have
been distributed to more than 500 people in the study area. Each farmer received 10-20 gaharu
seedlings depending on the size of their home garden (Suwardi et al., 2005).
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Proceedings of the International Symposium and Workshop on Tropical Peatland, Yogyakarta, 27-29 August 2007
Carbon-climate-human interactions on tropical peatland: carbon pools, fire, mitigation, restoration and wise use
Figure 3 Aquilaria seedlings and after 2 years transplanting in home garden.
Farmers who received gaharu seedlings are obligated to plant and to maintain the plants in
their home gardens. After 8 months, most of the gaharu plants grew well while some others
showed abnormal symptoms and some died. About 5% of gaharu plants died as a result of
drought, pests and disease. At this age, the height of plants ranged from 70-120 cm with stem
diameters of 1-3 cm. In July 2007, 2 years after transplanting, the height ranged from 150-300 cm
with stem diameters of 4-7 cm (Figure 3). The growth quality of the plants seems to depend on soil
fertility and the level of maintenance given to them by the farmers. The plants, which were planted
within holes containing organic matter, generally grew well. In contrast, plants that were planted
without addition of compost, generally showing abnormal symptoms characterized by yellowish
plant leaves and small height.
By growing gaharu plant in their home gardens, in the long run, farmers have opportunity to
earn much money. However, this chance will become a reality only if farmers can maintain their
gaharu plants and be successful in inoculating the fungus. With the success of cultivation of
gaharu plants in home gardens, Indonesia could again become a gaharu exporting country.
Agricultural activities for utilizing acid sulfate soil should be synchronized with the soil, plant
and climate characteristics. In the early rainy season when water is much more available and the
pH of soil is still low, farmers can cultivate rice. Good yields can be achieved by improvement of
water management, foliar application of fertilizer, and planting local varieties. During the dry
season that comes after rice harvesting, cultivation of a high economic value crop, such as chili, is
a good addition to livelihood. Chili is suitable to be planted in the low precipitation season when
water is still available. The other opportunity for people of this studied area to get more income is
by utilizing their home gardens for planting valuable plants. Gaharu cultivation is one opportunity
for long-term income. Other activities such as animal husbandry and fishery could also be
promising choices for farmers on acid sulfate soil areas
CONCLUSIONS
1.
The main keys for successful of rice cultivation on acid sulfate soils are water
management for irrigation and to flush away the toxic materials such as Al and
maintenance of a relatively high pH of about 5 by liming. The use of local rice varieties such
as Semut and application of micro- and macronutrients through foliar application are other
keys to increase rice production.
2.
After rice harvesting, cultivation of chili on acid sulfate soils of Rantau Makmur is
highly recommended as it is seasonally suitable and brings a high price.
3.
Gaharu is suitable for home gardens having a high income generating potential in
the long run when farmers are successful in maintaining the plants to ensure they grow and
by applying the correct technique to inoculate the plants with the fungus.
REFERENCES
Spark, D.L., Page, A.L., Helmke, P.A., Loeppert, R.H., Soltanpour, P.N., Tabatabai, M.A.,
Johnston, C.T. and Sumner, M.E. (1996) Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 3 Chemical Methods.
Soil Science Society of America, Inc. American Society of Agronomy, Inc. Madison, Wisconsin,
USA.
235
Proceedings of the International Symposium and Workshop on Tropical Peatland, Yogyakarta, 27-29 August 2007
Carbon-climate-human interactions on tropical peatland: carbon pools, fire, mitigation, restoration and wise use
Suwardi, Sumawinata, B., Jajakirana, G and Mulyanto, B. (2005) Pengalaman Penanaman 7000
Batang Tanaman Gaharu pada Lahan Sulfat Masam di Rantau Rasau, Jambi. Proceeding
Seminar Nasional Gaharu: Peluang dan Tantangan Pengembangan Gaharu di Indonesia,
Seameo Biotrop, 2005.
236
AND WORKSHOP ON TROPICAL PEATLAND
YOGYAKARTA, 27-29 AUGUST 2007
CARBON-CLIMATE-HUMAN INTERACTIONS ON TROPICAL PEATLAND:
CARBON POOLS, FIRE, MITIGATION, RESTORATION AND WISE USE
Editors
J.O. Rieley
School of Geography, University of Nottingham, United Kingdom
C.J. Banks
Department of Geography, University of Leicester, United Kingdom
Bostang Ragjagukguk
Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia
Published by:
CARBOPEAT
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University of Leicester
University Road
Leicester
United Kingdom
PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL
SYMPOSIUM AND WORKSHOP ON TROPICAL
PEATLAND
YOGYAKARTA, 27-29 AUGUST 2007
CARBON-CLIMATE-HUMAN INTERACTIONS
ON TROPICAL PEATLAND: CARBON POOLS, FIRE, MITIGATION,
RESTORATION AND WISE USE
Editors
John O. Rieley
School of Geography, University of Nottingham,
United Kingdom
Christopher J. Banks
Department of Geography, University of Leicester, United Kingdom
Bostang Ragjagukguk
Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia
FIRST POSTED ON INTERNET: OCTOBER 2007
Published by the Department of Geography, University of Leicester on behalf of the EU INCO
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Recommended form of citation:
Rieley, J.O., Banks, C.J. and Radjagukguk, B. (2007) Carbon-climate-human interaction on tropical
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INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM AND WORKSHOP ON TROPICAL PEATLAND
YOGYAKARTA, INDONESIA 27-29 AUGUST 2007
“Carbon-Climate-Human Interactions - Carbon Pools, Fire, Mitigation, Restoration and Wise Use”
Venue: Hyatt Regency Hotel, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Organized by:
Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia
Indonesian Peat Association (International Peat Society)
Funding Sponsors:
Embassy of Finland, Jakarta
Embassy of the Netherlands, Jakarta
EU CARBOPEAT and RESTORPEAT Projects
Vapo, Finland, BPPT and UGM, Indonesia
APRIL and Sinarmas
Partners:
EU INCO CARBOPEAT and RESTORPEAT Partnerships
Kalimantan Tropical Peat Swamp Forest Research Project (KALTROP), Universities of Nottingham
and Leicester, UK, Palangka Raya, Indonesia and Hokkaido, Japan
Centre for International Cooperation in Sustainable Management of Tropical Peatland (CIMTROP),
University of Palangka Raya, Indonesia
Indonesian Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology (BPPT), Indonesia
Centre for Sustainable Management of Natural Resources (SUSTAIN), University of Leicester, UK
Centre for Environmental Management (CEM), University of Nottingham, UK
Alterra, University of Wageningen and Research Centre, The Netherlands
International Peat Society
Indonesian Peat Association
Pt. Sinar Mas Forestry
Pt. Aprilasia
i
INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM AND WORKSHOP ON TROPICAL PEATLAND
YOGYAKARTA, INDONESIA 27-29 AUGUST 2007
“Carbon-Climate-Human Interactions - Carbon Pools, Fire, Mitigation, Restoration and Wise
Use”
Organizing Committee
Ex-officio
Prof. Susamto Somowiyarjo
Advisor
Dr.Abdul Syukur
Chairman
Prof. Bostang Radjagukguk
Secretary
Dr. Benito Heru Purwanto
Secretariat
Mr. Nasih Widya Yuwono
Mr. Nyahu Rumbang
Mr. Sunarto
Mr. Wirawan Setiadi
Mr. Yudha Purbawa
Treasurers
Mrs Sri Wedhastri
Mrs Tri Utami
Sessions
Dr. Bambang Djadmo Kertonegoro
Dr. Dja'far Shiddieq
Mr. Sulakhudin
Miss Rr. Kurnia Dewi Sasmita
Papers & Proceedings
Dr. Syamsul Arifin Siradz
Dr. Bambang Hendro Sunarminto
Mr. Ahmad Baihaki
Excursions
Dr. Suwido Limin
Mr. Ruly E.K. Kurniawan
Venue & Transportation
Dr. Eko Hanudin
Mr. Suci Handayani
Accommodation, Meals & Refreshments
Mrs. Sri Nuryani
Mrs. Cahyo Wulandari
International Steering Committee
Chairman
Prof. Jack Rieley, United Kingdom
Vice Chairman
Dr. Bambang Setiadi, Indonesia
Secretary
Dr. Suwido Limin
Members
Dr. Susan Page
Mr. Marcel Silvius
Prof. Bostang Radjagukguk
Prof. Fachrurrozie Sjarkowi
Prof. Florian Siegert
Prof. Daniel Murdiyarso
Prof. Murtedza Mohamed
Mr. Ismail Abu Bakar
Dr. Henk Wosten
Dr. Hidenori Takahashi
iii
CONTENTS
Contents .......................................................................................................................................... v
Editors' Preface.............................................................................................................................. ix
Outline Programme........................................................................................................................ xi
Opening Addresses ..................................................................................................................... xix
Statement Issued by Participants ............................................................................................ xxix
Viewpoint of the Indonesian Peat Association on carbon-peat-peatland forest-fire and
climate change .......................................................................................................................... xxxv
Extended abstracts of oral presentations ............................................................................ xxxvii
Tropical peatland - The amazing dual ecosystem: co-existence and mutual benefit (J.O. Rieley)1
The ‘wise use’ process and tropical peatlands (Donal Clarke) ................................................... 15
Tropical peatlands: distribution, extent and carbon storage – uncertainties and knowledge gaps
(Susan Page et al.)...................................................................................................................... 19
Peatland evolution in Southeast Asia during the last 35,000 cal years: implications for evaluating
their carbon storage potential (Raphael Wust et al.)................................................................... 25
Uncertainties in mapping the area of peatland and estimating the depth and volume of peat in
Central Kalimantan, Indonesia (Martin Stahlhut and John Rieley).............................................. 41
Montane and alpine peatlands of New Guinea (Geoffrey Hope) ................................................ 51
The importance of ecological monitoring for habitat management - a case study in the Sabangau
Forest, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia (Simon Husson et al.) .................................................... 59
Conservation status; threats and opportunities for the west coast swamp forests of Aceh (Ian
Singleton).................................................................................................................................... 67
The chemical characteristics and environmental significance of humic substances in the tropical
peat of Sarawak (Murtedza Mohamed & Sim Siong Fong)......................................................... 71
Mineral nutrient content of water at different depths in peatland in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia
(Y. Sulistiyanto et al.) .................................................................................................................. 77
Peat swamp forest regeneration using green belts in a timber estate in Riau, Sumatra, Indonesia
(Haris Gunawan et al.) ................................................................................................................ 83
Increase in pH of peat soil by microbial treatment (Diana Nurani et al.) ..................................... 89
Some Characteristics of peat in Loagan Bunut National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Alexander K
Sayok et al.) ................................................................................................................................ 95
Tropical peat carbon pools and water management: discussion of current investigations and
important considerations to achieve reduction of CO2 emissions through mitigative water
management (Aljosja Hooijer et al.) .......................................................................................... 101
Implications of groundwater level fluctuations for a tropical peatland ecosystem in Southeast
Asia (J.H.M. Wösten et al.) ....................................................................................................... 111
The role of drainage in the wise use of tropical peatlands (H.P. Ritzema) ............................... 117
Understanding the growth strategies of tropical peat swamp forest tree species: establishing
potential restoration tools (Laura Graham et al.)....................................................................... 125
Potent phosphate-solubilizing bacteria isolated from dipterocarps grown in peat swamp forest in
Central Kalimantan and their possible utilization for biorehabilitation of degraded peatland
(Irnayuli R. Sitepu et al.)............................................................................................................ 133
Developing soil and water indicators for sustainable forest management of peat swamp forest in
Indonesia (Sukresno) ................................................................................................................ 139
Effect of ectomycorrhizal fungi inoculated on Shorea Balangeran under field conditions in peatswamp forests (Maman Turjaman et al.)................................................................................... 143
Carbon flux controls and land use change in tropical peatland (Jauhiainen, J. et al.) .............. 149
Carbon flow and budget in a young mature oil palm agroecosystem on deep tropical peat (Lulie
Melling et al.)............................................................................................................................. 153
GSE forest monitoring - development of an operational service for greenhouse gas (GHG)
accounting in tropical forests in SE Asia (Claudius Mott and Florian Siegert) .......................... 159
Spatio-temporal development of selected arthropod families on developing peatland ecosystem:
Their value as an agri-environment indicator. (Mohd. Norowi et al.)......................................... 165
v
Sustainable livelihood of peatland dwellers in the Mukah Watershed, Sarawak, Malaysia (Peter
Songan et al.)............................................................................................................................ 171
Poverty alleviation projects on peatland in Indonesia (Yus Rusila Noor et al.) ......................... 177
The role of fire in the degradation of tropical peatlands: a case study from Central Kalimantan
(A. Hoscilo et al.)....................................................................................................................... 187
Biological effects of smoke from dry-season fires in non-burnt areas of the Sabangau peat
swamp forest, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia (Mark Harrison et al.)........................................ 191
Successful helicopter flight trials with airborne laser scanning technology to measure peat
swamp forest height and peat domes in Central Kalimantan (Boehm et al.) ............................ 195
Peatlands, climate change, poverty, biofuels, pulp and reduced emissions from deforestation
and degradation (Marcel Silvius & Herbert Diemont)................................................................ 203
Renewable energy and peatland (Betty Tio Minar)................................................................... 213
Restoration of hydrological status as the key to rehabilitation of damaged peatland in Central
Kalimantan (Suwido H. Limin et al.) .......................................................................................... 217
Extended abstracts of poster presentations ............................................................................ 225
Effect of land-use management on greenhouse gas emissions from tropical peatlands (Kazuyuki
Inubushi and Abdul Hadi).......................................................................................................... 227
Some efforts for improving degraded peatland in the Berbak Delta, Jambi, Indonesia (Suwardi et
al.) ............................................................................................................................................. 231
Using remote sensing for evaluating the change of peat-swamp forest in the Mekong Delta,
Vietnam (Vo Quang Minh et al.)................................................................................................ 237
Some considerations of tropical peat for energy (Basuki Sumawinata et al.) ........................... 243
Reducing emissions from peatland deforestation and degradation: carbon emission and
opportunity costs (Fahmuddin Agus et al.)................................................................................ 249
Arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi application for rehabilitation of degraded peat swamp forest in
Central Kalimantan (Tri Wira Yuwati et al.) ............................................................................... 253
Density and biomass of chironomid larvae in a peat channel in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia
(Yulintine et al.) ......................................................................................................................... 259
“SEVER-FIRE”: some problems in representation of tropical fires and conceptual ideas how to
solve these problems (Sergey Venevsky and Yannick Le Page) .............................................. 267
Decomposition of wood materials in a tropical peat swamp forest (Tetsuya Shimamura and
Kuniyasu Momose) ................................................................................................................... 271
Carbon dioxide emission from peatland in relation to hydrology, peat moisture, humification at
the Vodoi National Park, Vietnam (Duong Minh Vien et al.) ..................................................... 277
Plant and fish biodiversity in Voi Doi National Park, U Minh Ha, Mekong Delta (Barry Clough et
al.) ............................................................................................................................................. 283
Short abstracts of other presentations..................................................................................... 289
Biomass content and biodiversity of tropical peat swamp forest under various land cover
conditions (Adi Jaya)................................................................................................................. 289
Fire on tropical peatland in Indonesia - extent, frequency and impact (Florian Siegert) ........... 289
Ten Years of post-fire plant succession in the Badas Peat Swamp, Brunei (Hajah Dulima Jali)
.................................................................................................................................................. 290
Restoration of degraded peatlands through damming techniques (Alue Dohong) ................... 290
Peatland and sustainable lifelihood in Central Kalimantan (Fachrurrozie Sjarkowi) ................. 291
Pattern of utilization of non-timber forest products among local communities in peatland areas:
case analysis of two communities in Sarawak (Gabriel Tonga Noweg).................................... 291
Integrated spatial development plan for sustainable peatland in pontianak surroundings (Mira
Sophia Lubis) ............................................................................................................................ 292
Fires, peat lands and pulp: The potential of large scale pulp wood plantations in reducing green
house gas emissions, haze pollution and generating sustainable social economic development
for local people. A case study from South Sumatra, Indonesia (Brian Sawyer)........................ 292
Effect of soil moisture and land-use management in tropical peatlands on microbial population
and greenhouse gas emissions (Abdul Hadi) ........................................................................... 293
Geomorphological study of peat swamp in Kampar Peninsula, Riau (Darmawan)................... 293
Nematodes associated with pineapple grown on peat and the prospects for control (Nik Masdek
Hassan)..................................................................................................................................... 294
A methodology for estimating avoided emissions from the conservation of peat forests (Sarah
Walker)...................................................................................................................................... 294
vi
Addressing peatland conversion and fires in Indonesia through appropriate REDD policy and
mechanism (Yumiko Uryu)........................................................................................................ 294
The abundance of aquatic macrophytes in tidal sulfaquept of unplanted rice field in South
Kalimantan (Tjut Sugandawaty Djohan).................................................................................... 295
AIR-Co / Asia-Europe collaboration in knowledge and research on integrated water resources
management (Henk Ritzema) ................................................................................................... 295
Influence of soil sampling and preparation method on soil analysis results (Sri Nuryani H.U) . 296
Appendix 1 - Explanation of confernce logo ............................................................................ 297
vii
Proceedings of the International Symposium and Workshop on Tropical Peatland, Yogyakarta, 27-29 August 2007
Carbon-climate-human interactions on tropical peatland: carbon pools, fire, mitigation, restoration and wise use
SOME EFFORTS FOR IMPROVING DEGRADED PEATLAND IN THE
BERBAK DELTA, JAMBI, INDONESIA
(SUWARDI ET AL.)
Suwardi, Darmawan, Gunawan Djajakirana and Basuki Sumawinata
Department of Soil Science and Land Resources, Bogor Agricultural University
Jl. Meranti, Kampus IPB, Darmaga, Bogor, Indonesia
Email: suwardi_bogor@yahoo.com
SUMMARY
Reclamation of peatland of Indonesia has been carried out during the last 35 years for rice
production through transmigration projects. One of the transmigration areas is located in the
Berbak Delta, Jambi Province, Sumatra. In the early years, those lands produced rice grain up to 5
tons/ha. However, because the soils have changed into acid sulfate soils production has
decreased drastically to less than 1 ton/ha. This paper presents the results of some efforts to
improve degraded peatland for rice cultivation in the rainy season and chili cultivation after rice
harvesting through application of macro- and micronutrients as well as water management. In their
home gardens, farmers are encouraged to plant Aquilaria sp. (gaharu) for long-term family income.
KEYWORDS: acid sulfate soils, Aquilaria sp (gaharu), rice cultivation, tropical peatland
INTRODUCTION
Efforts to renovate degraded peatland in Indonesia by the Government have been carried out
through many projects. Amongst these projects were canal maintenance through deepening of
primary and secondary canals and provision of production goods through provision of fertilizers,
pesticides, soil tillage equipment, and credit.
One degraded peatland area is located in the Berbak Delta of Jambi Province where about
60,000 ha of the area has changed into acid sulfate soils. In the early stage of reclamation, rice
production of the land reached 5 tons/ha, but gradually decreased thereafter to a production of less
then 1 ton/ha. Nowadays some farmers are still continuing rice cultivation with low production,
while some others have abandoned their lands.
Most of scientific suggestions say that there are several reasons for the unsuccessful
renovation of acid sulfate soil including extreme acidity of soil and water, extreme soil drying in the
dry season, and prolonged flooding in the rainy season. Our field observations, however, strongly
suggested that there is still a possibility to make renovation of the agricultural land in order to
create various incomes for the farmers. Farmers have enough time to generate income from other
activities in addition to cultivating rice as their main income, such as planting vegetable crops after
rice and planting high economic value plants in their home gardens. Chili is one recommended
vegetables for these areas because it attracts a relatively good price. Gaharu (Aquilaria sp) was
selected for long term income generation and it can be planted in their home gardens.
This paper discusses mainly our experiences in implementing rice and chili cultivation as well
as gaharu planting in home gardens on abandoned acid sulfate soils in Rantau Rasau District in
Berbak Delta, Jambi Province.
LOCATION OF RICE, CHILI AND GAHARU CULTIVATION
Rice cultivation was carried out on 100 hectares of farmer lands in Rantau Makmur village
(Figure 1) from August 2005 to March 2006 involving 60 families. Each family cultivated either 1.0,
1.5, or 2.0 hectares depended on the size of the land they owned and the availability of workers.
The implementation of rice cultivation was carried out in collaboration with Jambi Provincial
Government.
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Carbon-climate-human interactions on tropical peatland: carbon pools, fire, mitigation, restoration and wise use
Some farmers out of the 60 families cultivated chili in the dry season after the rice planting
period in Rantau Makmur village. The size of the chili cultivation plots of each farmer varied
depending on availability of capital and workers.
The cultivation of Aquilaria sp involved 500 farmers in the 3 villages of Rantau Rasau II,
Bandar Jaya, and Rasau Jaya. The planting of Gaharu was done in collaboration with NPO MOYAI
Network JAPAN, the National Land Afforestation Promotion Organization.
Figure 1 Location of the study area in Rantau Makmur village
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Soil properties
Before reclamation the area was a peat swamp forest with a thin layer of peat (< 50 cm depth).
This peat layer was underlain by mangrove mud containing a high amount of pyrite mineral. After
years of reclamation and utilization, the peat layer has almost disappeared leaving a peaty clay
layer 0 to 20 cm at the surface.
Soil analysis using method from Sparks et al. (1996) shows that the mangrove mud sediment
in this area developed from materials transported from higher regions, which are mainly composed
of acidic rocks with relatively low Fe2O3 content. Sample analyses show that the sediment is rich in
sulphur and very low in Fe2O3. Pyrite content (represented by S content) in the top layer (0-40 cm)
was very low at only about 0.6% compared to a much higher content in the sub surface layer that
contains up to more than 2%. Like the S content, the content of Fe2O3 in the top layer was much
lower than that in the subsurface layer. These data confirmed that most of the pyrite in the top
layer has been oxidized. Soil chemical characteristics of the oxidized layer are presented in Table
1. The table shows that at depth of 0-5 cm, the soil was characterized by very low pH (4.2), low
content of exchangeable bases, and very high exchangeable Al (16 meq/100g).
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Proceedings of the International Symposium and Workshop on Tropical Peatland, Yogyakarta, 27-29 August 2007
Carbon-climate-human interactions on tropical peatland: carbon pools, fire, mitigation, restoration and wise use
Table 1 Soil characteristics of rice fields in Rantau Makmur
Depth (cm)
0-5
5-9
9-15
15-20
20-25
25-30
30-35
35-40
pH H2O
4.19
4.90
4.13
4.21
4.22
4.30
4.29
4.23
Exchangeable bases (meq/100g)
Ca
Mg
K
1.11
1.04
0.92
0.81
0.91
0.82
0.86
0.82
3.09
2.75
1.92
1.99
2.38
2.06
1.80
1.94
0.08
0.08
0.10
0.07
0.08
0.08
0.09
0.10
Exch. Al (meq/100g)
CEC
Base sat
(meq/100)
(%)
Na
0.13
0.13
0.15
0.12
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.13
15.6
16.8
13.4
12.7
16.9
17.3
14.7
16.2
59.98
69.81
70.80
71.78
60.28
60.96
49.16
54.08
7.35
5.72
4.36
4.18
5.78
5.03
5.80
5.53
Rice Growth and Production
In the early stage, rice growth showed a good performance except in locations close to canal
reconstruction. In general, at the following stage rice plant growth was not good, indicated by
yellowish leaf color; and weeds grew in almost all of the fields. There was also damage to the rice
plants as a result of attack by birds, wild boars and rats.
Three rice varieties were planted in the study areas (Table 2). The certified IR-42 occupied
about 75.3 ha, certified Batanghari occupied 10.5 ha and Semut, a local variety, occupied (5.8 ha).
This proportion was not planned but was determined by the amounts of both certified varieties IR42 and Batanghari provided by the local government. Farmers themselves provided the Semut
variety to make up for the lack of the two certified seed varieties.
Figure 2 Land was abandoned after more than 15 years of rice cultivation; this trial has
again yielded up to 5 tons/ha, by applying water management and appropriate technology.
Cultivation of chili after rice harvesting also shows a promising result.
Table 2 Dry rice grain production in the 100 ha pilot project.
Rice variety
Planting area (ha)
Average rice Production (ton/ha)
IR-42
Batanghari
Semut
75.3
10.5
5.8
3.5
3.1
2.7
The highest average rice yield was obtained for IR-42 (3.5 ton/ha) and the lowest was
obtained for Semut (2.7 ton/ha). A relatively good yield of IR-42 and Batanghari varieties were
obtained because there was no flooding during the rice growth period, as the rainy season of that
year was late. Usually, the first rain falls in September, but in 2005 the rain was still rare until
October-November and therefore the big flooding expected in December 2005 and January 2006
did not occur. Thus, the rain pattern in 2005/06, fortunately, was suitable for IR-42 and Batanghari
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Proceedings of the International Symposium and Workshop on Tropical Peatland, Yogyakarta, 27-29 August 2007
Carbon-climate-human interactions on tropical peatland: carbon pools, fire, mitigation, restoration and wise use
varieties, but rice production of these varieties cannot be used as a reference for the next planting
in the same season (Suwardi, et al., 2006).
The Semut production of only 2.7 ton/ha was lower than our result in the same location but in
a smaller plot in 2004/05 that reached 4-5 ton/ha. The lower production can be explained by
several reasons. Most of the Semut variety was planted in plots of secondary canal having
stronger acidity due to nearer to Batanghari River so they have been more affected by high pH of
water from the river. In general, rice production of plots in SC-5 was lower than SC-6, and SC-7.
Moreover, most of IR-42 and Batanghari plots in SC-5 performed worse than Semut. The other
factors that probably contributed to low rice production were late rice transplanting and poor land
preparation.
Chili Cultivation.
After rice harvesting farmers have enough time to undertake other activities to increase their
income generation. Some farmers have started to cultivate chili in part of their land after growing
rice (Figure 2). They chose chili because it is relatively easy to cultivate and it fetches quite a high
price. Farmers usually obtain more money from cultivation of chili than from rice production.
Obstacles to chili cultivation are a lack of capital and labour. Chili cultivation requires quite a high
level of investment to purchase seed, organic and chemical fertilizers and pesticides but also for
intensive land preparation and maintenance. Endowment of capital and carrying out cultivation in a
co-operative system are possible to improve and enlarge the chili cultivation area.
Because of labour and financial constraints, one farmer can optimally cultivate chili on only
0.25 ha of land. With good practices, however, the area of 0.25 ha could produce up to 2 tonnes of
chili with a marketable value of 8 million Rupiah. Half of the income will be reinvested as capital.
Gaharu Planting in Farmer Gardens.
Gaharu is a non timber forest product, which has high economic value because it has many uses
but especially for religious rituals. Gaharu (Aquilaria sp) is a woody perennial plant having high
economic value for the gaharu resin it produces. This resin produces a good-smell when burnt. Not
all gaharu plants grown in the forest produce gaharu resin; it depends on infection of a certain
fungus. There is a specific technique for inoculating the fungi into the gaharu plant to obtain the
best result.
Up to now, gaharu was mostly collected by people from natural plants inside wet tropical
forest but this continuous extraction has caused the availability of gaharu to decrease drastically.
Meanwhile, demand for the resin from countries in Asia and the Middle East, such as Japan, India,
China, Saudi Arabia, has increased. Therefore, it is very important to produce gaharu resin by
cultivating Aquilaria trees in order to supply this demand.
Regarding the benefit of gaharu plantations and considering the environmental suitability of
this study area for gaharu plantation, we have tried to collaborate with farmers to cultivate gaharu
in their home gardens. Small gaharu seedlings were obtained from Sarolangun, Jambi in March
2nd, 2005 and were grown with care for 6 months under paranet cover (Figure 3). After the
seedlings reached about 50 cm height, and were strong enough, they were distributed to the
farmers who transplanted them into their home gardens. Seven thousand gaharu seedlings have
been distributed to more than 500 people in the study area. Each farmer received 10-20 gaharu
seedlings depending on the size of their home garden (Suwardi et al., 2005).
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Proceedings of the International Symposium and Workshop on Tropical Peatland, Yogyakarta, 27-29 August 2007
Carbon-climate-human interactions on tropical peatland: carbon pools, fire, mitigation, restoration and wise use
Figure 3 Aquilaria seedlings and after 2 years transplanting in home garden.
Farmers who received gaharu seedlings are obligated to plant and to maintain the plants in
their home gardens. After 8 months, most of the gaharu plants grew well while some others
showed abnormal symptoms and some died. About 5% of gaharu plants died as a result of
drought, pests and disease. At this age, the height of plants ranged from 70-120 cm with stem
diameters of 1-3 cm. In July 2007, 2 years after transplanting, the height ranged from 150-300 cm
with stem diameters of 4-7 cm (Figure 3). The growth quality of the plants seems to depend on soil
fertility and the level of maintenance given to them by the farmers. The plants, which were planted
within holes containing organic matter, generally grew well. In contrast, plants that were planted
without addition of compost, generally showing abnormal symptoms characterized by yellowish
plant leaves and small height.
By growing gaharu plant in their home gardens, in the long run, farmers have opportunity to
earn much money. However, this chance will become a reality only if farmers can maintain their
gaharu plants and be successful in inoculating the fungus. With the success of cultivation of
gaharu plants in home gardens, Indonesia could again become a gaharu exporting country.
Agricultural activities for utilizing acid sulfate soil should be synchronized with the soil, plant
and climate characteristics. In the early rainy season when water is much more available and the
pH of soil is still low, farmers can cultivate rice. Good yields can be achieved by improvement of
water management, foliar application of fertilizer, and planting local varieties. During the dry
season that comes after rice harvesting, cultivation of a high economic value crop, such as chili, is
a good addition to livelihood. Chili is suitable to be planted in the low precipitation season when
water is still available. The other opportunity for people of this studied area to get more income is
by utilizing their home gardens for planting valuable plants. Gaharu cultivation is one opportunity
for long-term income. Other activities such as animal husbandry and fishery could also be
promising choices for farmers on acid sulfate soil areas
CONCLUSIONS
1.
The main keys for successful of rice cultivation on acid sulfate soils are water
management for irrigation and to flush away the toxic materials such as Al and
maintenance of a relatively high pH of about 5 by liming. The use of local rice varieties such
as Semut and application of micro- and macronutrients through foliar application are other
keys to increase rice production.
2.
After rice harvesting, cultivation of chili on acid sulfate soils of Rantau Makmur is
highly recommended as it is seasonally suitable and brings a high price.
3.
Gaharu is suitable for home gardens having a high income generating potential in
the long run when farmers are successful in maintaining the plants to ensure they grow and
by applying the correct technique to inoculate the plants with the fungus.
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Soil Science Society of America, Inc. American Society of Agronomy, Inc. Madison, Wisconsin,
USA.
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