SPECIFIC FOOD APPLICATIONS AND PROCESSES

VIII. SPECIFIC FOOD APPLICATIONS AND PROCESSES

Most of the examples in Section V were generic in description. This section identifies types of starch, modifications, and possible levels of use for a few specific food processes.

A. Thermal Processing

Thermal processing can involve severe heat treatment. Typically a food technologist would recommend a modified starch possessing the treatment of monosubstitution in conjunction with moderate to high levels of crosslinking. These modifications will provide stability, texture, and consistency. Processes such as retorting or heat-sterilization require such starches. The correct starch will depend upon other functional attributes, such as flavor, length of shelf life, and appearance. Usually a modified common or waxy corn is a good choice to initiate studies. In the high acid or low pH foods, heat treatment is usually minimal. A crosslinked only starch could be the best choice. However, monosubstitution could be necessary, depending upon desired product characteristics and storage, e.g., re- frigeration and/or freezing.

Starches that possess unique characteristics can offer process advantages in ther- mally processed foods. Native or specifically modified starches offering either thin-to- thick or thick-to-thin viscosity profiles aid with processing and particulate integrity. Starches that provide thin-to-thick properties may reduce sterilization time. This could Starches that possess unique characteristics can offer process advantages in ther- mally processed foods. Native or specifically modified starches offering either thin-to- thick or thick-to-thin viscosity profiles aid with processing and particulate integrity. Starches that provide thin-to-thick properties may reduce sterilization time. This could

Some foods are not designed to be clear, they are intended to be opaque (cloudy). Starches have been engineered to provide such a characteristic. Foods such as gravies, sauces, or beverage mixes are excellent applications for such a modified starch. These starches are stable in high-temperature processes. Modified common corn and/or wheat starches are used. Starches designed for opacity are not suggested for use as water binders or phase stabilizers.

Considering the variety of base starches utilized in thermally processed foods and the various levels of modifications, a technologist has an extensive spectrum of starch stabilizers and thickeners to choose from.

B. Freezing

The freezing of food is a method of preservation. It can offer greater than 1 year’s stability. Studies have shown that freezing typically maintains a high quality profile for foods, rivaling that of fresh.

Many foods sold as frozen require thermal processing prior to storage. This has been done to enhance flavor, consistency, texture, and appearance. In reality, it is done to stabilize the water phase. Some foods can be prepared without heat and those usually utilize instant starches, with or without the incorporation of gums. In many cases this frozen food is then heated prior to consumption.

A technologist should be aware of the type of freezing used as well as how long the product is going to be subjected to freezing. The use of rapid or blast freezing reduces ice crystal size. The use of spiral freezers, which are much slower, is more common and generally creates larger ice crystals. The slower the freeze, the greater the chance of ice crystal buildup. This can be detrimental to the added starch. Ice crystals can cause the fragmentation of granules and/or food particulate cell walls. Depending upon the storage conditions, ice crystals can grow, thus increasing storage or product degradation. One positive attribute for ingredient stabilization, regardless of the method of freezing, is that freezing retards bacterial and enzyme activity.

If extended shelf-life is desired (greater than 1 year), industrial studies have shown that starch alone does not maintain stability as well as when blended with a small amount of gum (hydrocolloid). For foods that are to be frozen, it is suggested that a minimum of 1.5% of a properly modified starch and approximately 0.01% of gum (xanthan) be used (formula weight). Actual amounts required will vary based on the product characteristics desired. Any starch can be used with proper modification. The desired source is up to the technologist and product parameters. It should be noted that neither crosslinking nor

fications alone do not support extended freezer or freeze–thaw for the purpose of main- taining freshlike characteristics. To achieve these functional properties, the proper levels for both crosslinking and monosubstitution are required. As with other foodstuffs, the starch of choice must be determined based on several parameters. However, experience has shown that tapioca, wheat, and waxy maize starches are extremely stable in frozen foods, especially those anticipated for extended freezer life. Freeze–thaw can be accom- plished with just about any properly modified starch. Waxy maize starch can yield excep- tional stability when modified with the proper degrees of crosslinking and monosubstitu- tion. As described in Section VI, the ultimate starch selection must include all facets of preparation and handling.

C. Instant Products

Most instant foods sold commercially today are dry mixes. These mixes thus require the consumer to prepare them by reconstitution. Usually this involves water or other basic liquids commonly sold, e.g., juices, milk, broth, etc. The reconstitution may or may not require the use of heat. The commercial process for manufacturing these dry mixes usually involves the blending of several ingredients prior to packaging. Starches used in these foods are typically of low moisture content. Instant starches are usually less than 5% moisture, and if cook-up starches are incorporated, they would most likely possess a mois- ture of less than 10% (8–15% based on mix weight).

Instant foods are produced commercially via spray-drying preblended mixtures or utilization of freeze drying, drum drying, or extrusion. Starches used in foods of this type generally contribute to the product functionality and characteristics. Viscosity, texture, stability, appearance, and eating quality can be affected by the incorporation of starch. Instant foods processed via spay-drying, drum drying, or extrusion may not support the use of added starches. The process may adequately gelatinize any natural starches within the mix.

Instant mixes formulated with instant modified starch usually require the addition of ingredients for dispersion. Such products may already be included in the product for- mula, but if not ingredients such as sucrose, dextrose, low-DE sweetener solids, maltodex- trins, and/or flours can be used as dispersing aids. These will eliminate or significantly reduce the potential of lumping or ‘‘fish eyeing,’’ as it is sometimes called ( Fig. 34 ). Some operations have utilized agglomeration as a method to reduce lumping. Another method is to request not only a modified instant starch, but one of coarser particle size. The larger particle reduces the surface area available for hydration and thus results in slower water uptake. It can produce a somewhat grainy texture compared to the other accepted procedures. Also the reverse is possible, utilizing a finer particle size to increase surface area and hydration rate.

1. Functional Differences Based on Process of Production Instant starches available commercially today offer a vast range of viscosity and functional

parameters for the food technologist. It is very difficult to attempt to prepare similar func- tional properties with instant starches processed via different production systems. There- fore, when attempting to secure two starches having similar functional characteristics, they should be acquired from similar production processes. As mentioned earlier regarding drum drying and extrusion, it is similar for spray-drying, freeze drying, or other physical parameters for the food technologist. It is very difficult to attempt to prepare similar func- tional properties with instant starches processed via different production systems. There- fore, when attempting to secure two starches having similar functional characteristics, they should be acquired from similar production processes. As mentioned earlier regarding drum drying and extrusion, it is similar for spray-drying, freeze drying, or other physical

D. Snack Foods

Both native and modified starches are commonly utilized in snack products. They have been used, for example, for expansion capability, relating to final product texture.

1. Puffed Extruded Products Common maize, tapioca, potato, wheat, and other grains are commonly used. Modified

starches however, usually require specific modifications and are used to produce specific textures. These textures are as much related to the starch origin as well as the degree and type of modification incorporated. Monosubstituted and/or hydrolyzed starch generates unique expanded products.

2. Fried Products Native or unmodified starches are not predominately used in these products. Generally,

these snacks consist of modified starches and flavorings. Forming may be used depending upon the snack product. Those products formed are usually done so prior to frying. They are sometimes frozen prior to frying, but can also be frozen after par frying. Par frying is the process of only partially cooking the food item. For many of the fried snack products, blends of ingredients are used. Starches, both modified and native, as well as flours, dex- trins, and low-DE sweeteners are common ingredients. Level of usage is dictated by tex- ture, storage, and frying conditions. Typically though for simple coats (batters) 20 to 80% starch is used. More complex coatings can involve several starches at significantly dif- fering levels (1–10%). All ingredients are chosen based on product quality and functional attributes to be contributed.

3. Baked, Microwaved and Impinged Air Processed Products These terms can also be referred to as nonfried. For many snack products, this is one of

the fastest growing market areas. For starch use, this too has been a significant growth area. Starches have been able to create the unique products required for this growth. Such products are call ‘‘half-products.’’ A half-product represents a formulation that for com- mercial use requires the consumer or commercial operation to complete the texture or functional properties incorporated into the product. An example could be an extruded particulate that requires baking or microwaving to complete the expansion, viscosity devel- opment, or crisping of the ultimate product for consumption. Depending upon texture and other functional properties, starch choice could range from common corn to a highly modi- fied starch (origin optional based on function).

E. Dressings, Sauces, Gravies, and Other Condiments

Products such as dressings, sauces, gravies, etc., possess very high water content. This excess water usually demands stabilizers that are also excellent water binders. When for- mulating dressings always consider that you will be working with high acid conditions, and typically some mechanical shear will be implied at some point. For sauces, gravies, and other condiments, formulations are typically that of neutral pH as considered for starch use, however mechanical shear still may be involved. Therefore, knowledge of the process Products such as dressings, sauces, gravies, etc., possess very high water content. This excess water usually demands stabilizers that are also excellent water binders. When for- mulating dressings always consider that you will be working with high acid conditions, and typically some mechanical shear will be implied at some point. For sauces, gravies, and other condiments, formulations are typically that of neutral pH as considered for starch use, however mechanical shear still may be involved. Therefore, knowledge of the process

F. Bakery Products

In this section we discuss bakery systems more typical to baked products recognized today. Those previously mentioned as half-products were unique to that discussion and are not included here. Products considered are totally processed utilizing a bakery operation. In most bakery products the starch source is wheat flour. However, to develop and retain the unique properties in today’s baked foods, the incorporation of modified starches and gums has taken place. Balance of moisture in differing systems has become a very difficult formulation task. Water activity and the knowledge of ingredient interaction has become

a dominate challenge for the food scientist. This becomes more significant as the product undergoes mixing, baking, and storage. Now not only do the ingredients have to interact correctly, but packaging must also compliment the final product to retain quality.

Those baked products that are formulated as a dough require special handling when attempting to incorporate starch. Some may consider this a half-product, although for this writing we are considering dough as a finished mix or a transition phase. Moisture hydra- tion must be considered, primarily due to the dough characteristics: mixing, sheeting, handling, etc. It is not just the total hydration capacity of the added starch, but also the rate of hydration that could be significant. Also important are the rate at which the starch loses moisture and what physical properties are generated after processing. Wheat starch is a starch for consideration, both as a native or modified source. It derives from wheat and therefore offers synergy with the flour. Tapioca and waxy maize have also performed very well in many baked foods. Depending upon how the baked item is to be handled, cook-up starches can be used. However, if boil-out or blow-out is a problem, either high- soluble solids are needed or utilization of cook-up and instant starches. Gums may contrib- ute to controlling viscosity problems, but texture can become an issue if use levels are too great. The same can be said for high levels of starch.

As with any food system, always consider the other ingredients when selecting a starch. The fat and sweetener matrix can become very critical as related to total functional- ity produced by the added starch. As discussed earlier in Section VII, the type of fat, when it is added, and what it is added with can significantly contribute to the hydration and functionality of the starch. The same can be said regarding the sweetener system. It is important to balance the sucrose and flour for certain baked goods, but remember the effect that sucrose has on starch. Will this cause a problem with your starch of choice? It may be necessary to evaluate more than one sweetener or fat system.

G. Pet Products

Do not be fooled by the word pet when making considerations for product choices. Pet foods undergo as many regulatory issues as do food products for human consumption. There are few ingredients utilized within pet foods that we do not use in human food Do not be fooled by the word pet when making considerations for product choices. Pet foods undergo as many regulatory issues as do food products for human consumption. There are few ingredients utilized within pet foods that we do not use in human food

Starch utilization is very similar to foods formulated and processed for humans. The canned foods are sterilized with similar standards, therefore requiring starches with similar food approval and functional characteristics. Those pet foods extruded or formed for snacks also require starch and ingredient mixtures requiring similar property consider- ations as for human products. In some instances, because of the different eating characteris- tics between humans and animals, standards for functionality may need to be altered from that for humans. Hardness or bite may be an issue. What a human may consider hard, a pet would not consider hard enough. This then requires animal eating, tasting, and quality studies for product analysis, similar to human feeding studies. The same holds true for diet contribution, digestion, health benefit, fecal discharge, and other physical and physio- logical issues. Starch as utilized in pet foods will be dictated by the basic functional proper- ties of the native starch and the acceptance of it by the consumer, in this case the pet.

H. Meat Products

Starch has recently gained approval for general use in many meat products. Most meat items commercially produced had very strict standards of identity. For the improvement of storage and process, starch and related products were approved for use. The use of starch (modified) in meat products is regulated by the United States Department of Agri- culture’s Food Safety and Inspection Service. Specifics are available in Title 9, Part 318.7 of the Code of Federal, Regulations.

Prior to the approval of starch and related products the limitation of water manage- ment in many meat products was controlled through the use of high levels of salt. In meats such as frankfurters, bologna, luncheon loafs, etc., starch contributes a method to reduce purge (free water/brine). Flour and other grain-based ingredients have been evaluated, none possessing the water absorption and control as compared to modified starch.

In products of seafood derivatives, such as surimi (seafood analogs), starch contrib- utes more than water management. Texture, process improvement, and most significantly economic advantage were achieved with added starch. It was determined that not only could modified starch be used, but significant levels of native starch also. Unmodified tapioca, potato, and wheat are commonly used in conjunction with one or more modified starches. Modified waxy maize, tapioca, and potato are typical starches of choice. Again, the desired product and texture determines the starches utilized. As can be seen, this type of meat analog is a complex formulation of starches. It took several evaluations to deter- mine the ideal blend for the production of a commercial analog.

I. Cereals and Related Products

Cereals today utilize predominately whole grains, with or without added starch. Many cereals depend on the expansion capability of the flour(s) used to develop and maintain the texture and eating quality of the finished product. Referring back to the sections per- taining to extrusion and instant starches, we can relate them to the contribution of starch to cereals. Many cereals utilize extrusion as the method of preparation. Partial to total gelatinization is developed during the process of cereal production. Therefore, the process effect as well as the functional properties will be generated during and after processing by the starch within the flour or grain used. Today, cereal producers utilize added starch to Cereals today utilize predominately whole grains, with or without added starch. Many cereals depend on the expansion capability of the flour(s) used to develop and maintain the texture and eating quality of the finished product. Referring back to the sections per- taining to extrusion and instant starches, we can relate them to the contribution of starch to cereals. Many cereals utilize extrusion as the method of preparation. Partial to total gelatinization is developed during the process of cereal production. Therefore, the process effect as well as the functional properties will be generated during and after processing by the starch within the flour or grain used. Today, cereal producers utilize added starch to

A property that many cereal producers have researched for years is that of extended bowl life. A property that offers longer crisp texture to a cereal when mixed with a liquid, usually milk. The coating of cereal pieces has been an accepted method for years, however the desire for a cereal product requiring no coating and equally stable still exists. Improve- ment has been achieved, but none to date match what can be accomplished with a coating.

The coating process has now led to another line of cereallike products. It has also created an extension to the snack industry with cereallike products: the granola or whole grain coated snacks. We have bars, clusters, and bits for our enjoyment, all a step from the cereal itself.

Wheat, oat, barley, and rice flours are popular starters for cereals. Wheat, oat, rice, tapioca, and potato starches are commonly used in many cereals as well as the cereallike snacks.

J. Confections and Candy

When discussing confections and candy products (51) the food technologist should con- sider the different selections of confections there are. Confections consist of three catego- ries: (1) soft, (2) gummy (chewable), and (3) hard (nonchewable) candies.

Soft candies are those products such as chocolate-based or flavor-coated products (e.g., circus peanuts) that may or may not be chewable. Gummy type candy include gum drops, jelly beans, etc. The hard candies would be those confections such as cough drops, lozenges, etc.

Starches used for these types of confections differ dramatically. The soft candies usually require starches tender in texture or nongelling. Some could require little heat stability and total enzyme degradation. This would be for a chocolate covered cherry type product. Others may be used in caramel or fruit centers.

The starches for the gummy and hard candies are similar but differ with degree of modification and are blended as necessary to accomplish the texture. Gummy candies are produced using hydrolyzed starches (refer to Section III.A). In some instances lightly modified or unmodified high-amylose starch may be utilized. For the production of hard candies this type of starch would be used because of the set generated by the greater percentage of amylose (refer to Sections II.A and II.B).

In all confections the food scientist will have to work with a sweetener. It could be sucrose or more likely it will be some type of liquid sweetener derived from a carbohydrate modification. It is probable that it would be a corn syrup, as liquid sweeteners derived from other starch bases are not as commercially available and do not offer quite the eco- nomics as yet. Solids for most confections are in excess of 80%, thus requiring elevated or greater than atmospheric conditions to process. To develop the textures desired for the gummy or hard candies starch is typically added at a 6–13% level. The added starch could

be either a single unit or more likely a blend of starches to achieve the desired results. Flavors and colors are usually minimal in these formulations. Only in confections being marketed today as low or no sugar is there much variance from these levels. However, in such low calorie products the food scientist has the chal- lenge of balancing excess water with other carbohydrates and hydrocolloids that will, it be either a single unit or more likely a blend of starches to achieve the desired results. Flavors and colors are usually minimal in these formulations. Only in confections being marketed today as low or no sugar is there much variance from these levels. However, in such low calorie products the food scientist has the chal- lenge of balancing excess water with other carbohydrates and hydrocolloids that will, it

K. Dairy and Related Products

Dairy foods are those foods that contain all or a high percentage of dairy-derived ingredi- ents and meet a given set of criteria for a standard of identity. Dairy-related products are those products usually sold in the dairy section of the commercial outlet and although they have been formulated to simulate a standard dairy product, they do not meet the identity standards for dairy products. Many of these products contain dairy products as a portion of their ingredient base. Starches are widely used in the dairy related products and only recently have some standards changed to allow their use.

Dairy products such as puddings, yogurts, toppings, cheese, sour cream, and ice cream can utilize starch. For many years starch-related products such as the sweeteners, maltodextrins, and dextrins have been accepted for use.

In puddings, yogurts, and sour cream, starches are added to stabilize the final prod- uct. Most of the time it is the management of the water phase that is critical for the stabilization. In the yogurt, starch could be in the dairy portion and/or in a fruit portion, depending on the type of yogurt product. The sour cream products require added starch for use in food service facilities. Many foods are served hot and natural sour cream does not possess sufficient heat stability to not cause a serving issue. In the cheese industry added starch is used to either improve slicing, shelf stability, or package release. Except for package release, a modified starch is required. Considering that most dairy products are neutral in flavor or rather sensitive flavors are at issue, starches of not strong overtones are desired. Those products requiring heat and or process stability should be crosslinked accordingly.

In dip, sauces, or dairy condiments it may be possible to utilize instant starches. Depending upon the texture and manufacturing process involved the finished food item will determine the starch of choice. Remember to consider appearance and dispersion when selecting—a granular instant may be preferred.

L. Starch as Fat Replacer, Substitute, or Mimetic

As we saw great interest in the 1980s for the inclusion of bran in foods, the 1990s brought the reformulation of foods to reduce the content of fat. Thus arose the need for specific ingredients to either totally replace the fat in a food or substitute or mimic the properties of part of the fat.

The starch and protein industries responded with an abundance of so-called fat re- placers. Unfortunately, only the pourable salad dressing industry was lucky enough to quickly and successfully institute a complete line of fat free products. The rest of the food products being researched to totally replace fat have fallen well short of success. A few baked products have acceptable but not highly recognized fat free products in the market- place. There may be a few, but as a whole the attempt for a single ingredient fat replacer is at this time unsuccessful. The industry soon realized that complex formulations were required and most likely a two or three ingredient mix was required to somewhat simulate

the removed fat ( Tables 12 and 13 ).

This holds true for fat free foods, however as we move to new definitions for low

Table 12 Liquid Sweeteners: Representative Chemical and Physical Data Degree of conversion

High High Type of conversion

Very low

Acid–enzyme Acid–enzyme Dextrose equivalent (DE), %

Acid–enzyme

Acid

Acid

Acid–enzyme

Acid–enzyme

Acid

26 35 43 42 50 54 63 63 Dextrose (monosaccharides), %

5 13 19 9 10 27 37 37 Maltose (disaccharides), %

8 10 14 34 42 22 29 29 Maltotriose (trisaccharides), %

11 11 13 24 22 15 9 9 Higher saccharides, %

76 66 54 33 26 36 25 25 Baume at 100 °F, degrees

42 43 43 43 43 43 43 44 Total solids, %

77.5 80.0 80.3 80.4 80.7 81.0 81.6 83.6 Moisture, %

22.5 20.0 19.7 19.6 19.3 19.0 18.4 16.4 pH

4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 Viscosity, Poises at 100 °F

90 75 55 155 Boiling point, °F

233 234 Weight, lb/gal at 100 °F

11.70 11.81 11.81 11.81 11.81 11.81 11.81 11.93 Note : All values are typical, they should not be construed as specifications.

Table 13 Commercial Starches Utilized as Fat Replacers Product

Company of origin Amalean I

Source of starch/modification

High amylose corn/modified Cerestar USA Amalean II

High amylose corn/modified/instant Cerestar USA Frigex

Tapioca/modified National Starch Gel N Creamy

Tapioca/modified National Starch Instant Pure Flo

Waxy corn/modified/instant National Starch Instant Stellar

Common corn/modified/instant A.E. Staley Instant W-11

Waxy corn/modified/instant Cerestar USA Leanbind

Corn/modified National Starch Mira Thick 468

Waxy corn/modified/instant A.E. Staley N-Lite CM

Tapioca/modified National Starch N-Lite L

Waxy corn/modified National Starch N-Lite LP

Waxy corn/modified/instant National Starch Paselli BC

Potato/modified Avebe Pure Gel B-990

Corn/modified GPC Remygel

Rice Remy Industries Remyline

Rice Remy Industries Slenderlean

Tapioca/modified National Starch Starch Plus SPR

Rice California National Products Starch Plus SPW

Waxy rice California National Products Sta-Slim 142

Potato/modified/instant A.E. Staley Sta-Slim 143

Potato/modified A.E. Staley Sta-Slim 150

Tapioca/modified/instant A.E. Staley Sta-Slim 151

Tapioca/modified A.E. Staley Sta-Slim 171

Waxy corn/modified A.E. Staley Stellar

Corn/modified A.E. Staley

Table 14 Commercial Maltodextrins Used for Fat Replacers Product

Company offering Product Dairytrim

Native Starch Source

Quaker Oats/Rhone Poulenc Instant N-Oil II

Oat flour

National Starch Maltrin M040

Tapioca

GPC N-Lite B

Common corn

National Starch N-Lite D

Waxy corn

National Starch Novadex 120–01

Common corn

National Oats Novadex 120–10

Oat flour

National Oats Oatrim 5

Oat flour

Quaker Oats/Rhone Poulenc Oatrim 5Q

Oat flour

Quaker Oats/Rhone Poulenc Paselli SA2

Oat flour

Avebe Rice Trim

Potato

Zumbro Star Dri-1

Rice flour

A.E. Staley Trimchoice 5

Common corn

ConAgra/A.E. Staley Trimchoice OC

Oat flour

Oat/corn flour

ConAgra/A.E. Staley ConAgra/A.E. Staley

M. Emulsification and Encapsulation

Starches specifically modified for emulsification offer the food scientist the capability to utilize starch not as a water binder or stabilizer, but rather as an ingredient to form a noncontinuous phase within which is a matrix of water, lipid, and starch. Typically, if the food product is to be water phase stable an additional starch or gum will be required. Starches usually referred to as alkenylsuccinates are successful in these applications. Emulsifying starches also generally do not develop significant viscosity and are limited in their heat tolerance. Basically what these starches support are surface reactions and not an internal absorption ( Fig. 35 ).

Whereas with products referred to as encapsulating starches, a different physical effect takes place. Encapsulation refers to the entrapment of lipids (oils) with starch and/ or related products ( Fig. 36 ). Significant success for encapsulation has been noted and commercialized through the utilization of octenylsuccinic acid anhydride reacted starch (OSA). This treatment is also FDA approved (Table VI). It was through the inclusion of these starches and gums that the pourable dressing industry was successful with the development of low and fat free products. Starches derived from oxidization and dextrini- zation are also utilized for this functional property. Typically though one must always consider the total characteristics produced from a reaction and the ultimate effect it will have on the finished food product. Flavor, color, etc., should always be evaluated.

One additional mechanism has been identified as significant for utilizing starch as an encapsulating agent. It was discovered that the inclusion of polyvalent metal ions (mag- nesium, calcium) produced a water repellent starch when reacted with an OSA-treated starch (52). It was then shown that this related to a slower release of flavor from encapsu- lated oils. Usage can range from 10–30% based on oil weight.

Starches used for encapsulation can vary. The food scientist must consider the vola- tility of the flavors and then determine what starch base would be correct. For those non- volatile compounds a maltodextrin may suffice as a carrier. However, this would be a surface coating and not an encapsulation. This is done quite commonly. For the volatile flavors, a high-amylose starch reacted with OSA may be of choice, taking advantage of the quick setting properties of high-amylose starch and the encapsulating effect of the reactant.