Error analysis on the second grade students of senior high school in using type two of conditional sentences at SMA Dua Mei Ciputat

A ‘Skripsi’ Presented to the Faculty of Tarbiya and Teachers Training in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Strata 1 (Bachelor

of Arts) in English Education Department

BY:

MUHAMAD RIDHO PRATAMA NIM: 107014000699

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

FACULTY OF TARBIYA AND TEACHERS TRAINING STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY

SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH JAKARTA

AT SMA DUA MEI CIPUTAT

A ,skripsi'presented to the Faculty of Tarbiya and Teachers Training in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Strata L (Bachelor of Arts) in English

Education DePartment

MUHAMAD RIDHO PRATAMA NIM: 107014000699

Approved bY: Advisor,

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

FACULTY OF TARBIYA AND TEACHERS TRAINING STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY

SYAzuF HIDAYATULLAH JAKARTA

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Training Certifies that the "Skripsi" (Scientific Paper) entitled "Errors Analysis on the Second Grade Students of Senior High School in Using Type Two of Conditional Sentences at SMA Dua Mei Ciputat." Written by Muhamad Ridho Pratama, Student's Registration Number 107014000699 was Examined by the Committee on 21" of December 2011, and Declared to have passed and therefore, Fulfilled one of the Requirements for the Academic Title of 'S.Pd.' (Bachelor of Arts) in English Education Department.

Jakarta, 21 December, 2011 EXAMINATION COMMITTEE

Chairman : Drs. Syauki. M.Pd.

NrP. 19641212 199103 1, 002

: Neneng Suneqgsih. M.Pd. NrP. 19730625 199903 2 001 Secretary

Examiners : l. Drs. H. Bahrul Hasibuan. M.Ed. (

2. Drs. Syauki. M.Pd. NIP. 196412t2 t99t03 |

Acknowledged by

Dean of Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teachers' Training

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Dr. Nurlena Rifa'i. Ph.D.

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ABSTRACT

Pratama, Ridho. 2011. Error Analysis on the Second Grade Students of Senior High School at SMA Dua Mei Ciputat

Advisor : Dr. Alek, M.Pd.

Key Words : Errors Analysis on students’ Error, Type Two of Conditional Sentences, SMA Dua Mei Ciputat

Skripsi entitled “ERRORS ANALYSIS ON THE SECOND GRADE STUDENTS OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL IN USING TYPE TWO OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES AT SMA DUA MEI CIPUTAT.” The research is aimed at obtaining clear information about the students’ errors and knowing the reason why the students make errors in using type two of conditional sentences at SMA Dua Mei Ciputat. The population of the research is 30 students of SMA Dua Mei Ciputat. Data were collected through test and interview. The collected data was analyzed by using descriptive analysis by describing students’ errors and quantitative analysis by the formula of percentage. The findings of the research are as follows: (1) Based on the explanations on research findings, so the errors made by the students consisting of word choice with 55.8%, verb tense with 39.8%, omit a word with 1.94%, add a word with 0.97%, meaning not clear with 0.97%, and word form with the percentage 0.48%. (2) The reason why the students make errors in using type two of conditional sentences caused by inter-lingual transfer in which the system, rules, and patterns of the students’ native

language distract their target language with the percentage 46.61%. Next, the students make the errors caused by context of learning in which either the teachers, textbooks, or the patterns are improperly contextualized with the percentage 38.83%. There are 14.07% of the students make the errors caused by

intra-lingual transfer in which the students create hypotheses, that are not related to their first and target language. At last, 0.49% of the student makes the errors caused by communication strategies in which the student has own way to do with the mother tongue and target language inappropriately.

iii

ABSTRAK

Pratama, Ridho. 2011. Error Analysis on the Second Grade Students of Senior High School at SMA Dua mei Ciputat

Advisor : Dr. Alek, M.Pd.

Key Words : Errors Analysis on students’ Error, Type Two of Conditional Sentences, SMA Dua Mei Ciputat

Skripsi yang berjudul “ERRORS ANALYSIS ON THE SECOND GRADE

STUDENTS OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL IN USING TYPE TWO OF

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES AT SMA DUA MEI CIPUTAT” dimaksudkan untuk mendapatkan informasi yang jelas tentang kesalahan siswa dan untuk mengetahui alasan mengapa siswa melakukan kesalahan dalam menggunakan tipe dua conditional sentences di SMA Dua Mei Ciputat. Populasi penelitian adalah 30 siswa SMA Dua Mei Ciputat. Data dikumpulkan melalui tes dan wawancara. Data yang dikumpulkan dianalisa menggunakan analisa deskriptif dengan menggambarkan kesalahan siswa dan analisa kuantitatif dengan rumus persentase. Hasil penelitian adalah sebagai berikut: (1) Kesalahan-kesalahan yang banyak dibuat oleh siswa terdiri dari: word choice dengan persentase 55.8%, verb tense

dengan 39.8%, omit a word dengan 1.94%, add a word dengan 0.97%, meaning not clear dengan 0.97%, dan word form dengan persentase 0.48%. (2) Alasan mengapa siswa melakukan kesalahan dalam menggunakan tipe dua conditional sentences disebabkan karena inter-lingual transfer dimana system, aturan, dan pola bahasa asli siswa mengganggu bahasa yang sedang siswa pelajari dengan persentase 46.61%. Selanjutnya, siswa membuat kesalahan karena context of learning yang mana guru-guru, buku teks, atau pola-pola tidak kontekstual dengan persentase 38.83%. Ada 14.07% siswa yang membuat kesalahan disebabkan oleh

intra-lingual transfer dimana siswa membuat hipotesa yang tidak ada

hubungannya dengan bahasa pertama dan bahasa yang mereka sedang pelajari. Terakhir, 0.49% dari siswa membuat kesalahan disebabkan karena communication strategies dimana siswa memiliki cara sendiri terhadap bahasa asli mereka dan bahasa yang sedang dipelajari dengan tidak tepat.

iv

Lord of the world, who has blessed the writer in completing this ‘skripsi’. Peace and Blessing be upon the Prophet Muhammad SAW, his family, his companion, and his followers.

In this opportunity, the writer would like to express his greatest honor to his beloved family; his parents, Wasirun, BA. and Anna Hamimi, BA. and his sister; Rahmatia Andaruni, who always give their support and moral encouragement in finishing his study. Also, he would like to address his greatest thanks to his advisor Dr. Alek, M.Pd for his time, guidance, valuable helps,

correction and suggestion during completing this ‘skripsi’.

The writer realizes that if there were no support and motivation from

people around him, he could not finish this ‘skripsi’. Therefore, he would like to

give his deepest appreciation to:

1. All lecturers in English Education Department who always give their motivation and valuable knowledge and also unforgettable experience

during her study at State Islamic University ‘Syarif Hidayatullah’ Jakarta.

2. Drs. Syauki, M. Pd; the chairman of English Education Department and Neneng Sunengsih, S. Pd; the secretary of English education Department.

3. Prof. Dede Rosyada, M. A; the Dean of faculty of Tarbiyah’ and Teachers’

Training of State Islamic University ‘Syarif Hidayatullah’ Jakarta.

4. Yayat Ruhiat, S. Pd. The Headmaster of SMA Dua Mei Ciputat who has allowed the writer to observe there. Also, the second grade students of class XI Social and class XI Science, who helped the writer by doing the test given. If there were no their help, this ‘skripsi’ would not be accomplished.

v

anyone who read his ‘skripsi.

Jakarta,………

vi

ABSTRACT ... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ... iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... vi

LIST OF TABLES ... ix

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ...1

A. The Background of the Research ...1

B. The Limitation and Scope of the Problems ...4

C. The Formulation of the Problems ...4

D. The Objectives of the Research ...4

E. The Significances of the Research ...5

CHAPTER II:THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...6

A. Errors Analysis ...6

1. The Differences between Errors and Mistakes ...6

2. The Causes of Errors ...7

3. The Classification of Errors ...10

4. The Procedures of Errors Analysis ...11

B. Grammar ...12

1. The Definition of Grammar ...13

vii

D. Conditional Sentences ...16

1. The Definition of Conditional Sentences ...16

2. The Types of Conditional Sentences ...18

3. The Functions of Conditional Sentences ...25

4. The Usages of Conditional Sentences ...26

E. Type Two of Conditional Sentences ...27

1. The Form of Type Two of Conditional Sentences ...27

2. The Function of Type Two of Conditional Sentences ...31

3. The Usages of Type Two of Conditional Sentences ...31

4. The Difficulties in Using Type Two of Conditional Sentences ...34

CHAPTER III:RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...36

A. The Purpose of the Research ...36

B. The Time and Place of the Research ...36

C. The Population of the Research ...36

D. The Method of the Research ...37

E. The Instrument of the Research ...37

F. The Technique of Data Collecting ...38

G. The Techniques of Data Analysis ...38

CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH FINDINGS ...40

A. The Data Description ...40

B. The Data Analysis ...77

viii

B. Suggestions ...87

BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDICES

ix

2. Table 2.2 (The Formula of Type One of Type Two of Conditional Sentences Started from If Clause Ended with

Main Clause) ... 19

3. Table 2.3 (The Formula of Type One of Conditional Sentences Started from Main Clause Ended with If Clause) ... 19

4. Table 2.4 (The Formula of Type Two of Conditional Sentences Started from If Clause Ended with Main Clause) ... 22

5. Table 2.5 (The Formula of Type Three of Conditional Sentences Started from If Clause Ended with Main Clause) ... 23

6. Table 2.6 (The Formula of Type Three of Conditional Sentences Started from Main Clause Ended with If Clause) ... 23

7. Table 2.7 (The Brief Explanation of Usages of Type Two of Conditional Sentences)... 26

8. Table 2.8 (The Brief Explanation of Affirmative Statements in Type Two of Conditional Sentences) ... 28

9. Table 2.9 (The Brief Explanation of Short Answer in Type Two of Conditional Sentences) ... 28

10.Table 2.10 (The Brief Explanation of WH-Questions in Type Two of Conditional Sentences) ... 28

11.Table 2.11 (The Brief Explanation of Negative Statements in Type Two of Conditional Sentences) ... 29

12.Table 2.12 (The Brief Explanation of Yes/No Questions in Type Two of Conditional Sentences) ... 29

13.Table 2.13 (The Tense Combination of Present Unreal)... 34

14.Table 3.1 (The Tense Area and Each Item) ... 37

15.Table 3.2 (The Average Errors Formula) ... 39

16.Table 4.1 (The Students’ Response Distribution on Each Item of Test in Part I) ... 40

17.Table 4.2 (The Students’ Response Distribution on Each Item of Test in Part II) ... 41

18.Table 4.3 (The Students’ Response Distribution on Each Item of Test in Part II) ... 41

19.Table 4.4 (The 1st Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 42

20.Table 4.5 (The 2nd Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 44

21.Table 4.6 (The 3rd Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 45

x

27.Table 4.12 (The 9th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 52

28.Table 4.13 (The 10th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 54

29.Table 4.14 (The 11th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 55

30.Table 4.15 (The 12th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 56

31.Table 4.16 (The 13thIdentification of the Students’ Errors) ... 57

32.Table 4.17 (The 14th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 59

33.Table 4.18 (The 15thIdentification of the Students’ Errors) ... 60

34.Table 4.19 (The 16th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 61

35.Table 4.20 (The 17th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 62

36.Table 4.21 (The 18th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 63

37.Table 4.22 (The 19th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 64

38.Table 4.23 (The 20th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 65

39.Table 4.24 (The 21st Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 66

40.Table 4.25 (The 22nd Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 67

41.Table 4.26 (The 23rd Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 69

42.Table 4.27 (The 24th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 70

43.Table 4.28 (The 25th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 71

44.Table 4.29 (The 26th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 73

45.Table 4.30 (The 27th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 74

46.Table 4.31 (The 28th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 75

47.Table 4.32 (The 29th Identification of the Students’ Errors) ... 75

48.Table 4.33 (The 30th Identification of the Students’ Errors ) ... 76

49.Table 4.34 (Table of Number of Classification of Errors Explanation) .... 77

50.Table 4.35 (Table of Number of Causes of Errors Explanation) ... 78

51.Table 4.36 (The Frequency and Percentage of the Students’ Errors in the Form of Type Two of Conditional Sentences in Part I) ... 79

52.Table 4.37 (The Frequency and Percentage of the Students’ Errors in the Form of Type Two of Conditional Sentences in Part II) ... 81

53.Table 4.38 (The Frequency and Percentage of the Students’ Errors in the Form of Type Two of Conditional Sentences in Part III) ... 83

1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A.The Background of the Research

English is the most common language used throughout the world. Christopher Brumfit states that “English is an International Languge in that it is the most widespread medium of international communication, both because of the number and geographical spread of its speakers, and because of the large number of non-native spekers who use it for part at least of their international contact”.1

As a foreign language in Indonesia, English has an important position and clearly needed by many learners to deliver thought and interact in a variety of situations. Therefore, people realize without mastering the language interaction and all kinds of activities among the people will breakdown. Because when we learn a language, we learn to communicate through the language we have learned. But with mastering English, the student can develop their knowldge; science, technology, art and relations with other countries.

In Indonesian Schools, English is determined as a compulsory subject in the national curriculum. It is taught at the beginning from Elementary School up to the university. As we know, the goal of teaching English in Indonesia is to enable students to use English as a means of communication. Hence, if the students want to master English well, they have to master four basic language skills. They should have a capability of Grammar. Grammar is needed even in conmunication because it can avoid misunderstanding.

Grammar is one of the language aspects which are taught to every language learners. It is the basic knowledge and important role in underestanding the English language. Also, it consists of rules set either in writing some English sentences, in listening English voices, in reading several passages, and in having English conversation.

1

_{Christopher Brumfit, English for International Communication, (Oxford: Pergamon Press}

According to Paul Robert, he states that Grammar is a body of generalization about how people says thing in order to make generalization, we must agree on the meaning of terms for the things we wish to talk about. Grammar accuracy is only part of communication to convey a message, where grammar is merely a tool.2

By learning grammar, we can communicate our message clearly and learn about the rules to construct the good sentences. Then, it is expected that we can share the information and be confident to express the idea when we have a communication with other people. If we are good in saying the words, other person who listen to us will understand about the things that we want to share.

Especially, for the students from non-English background, who learn English encounter the same problems in learning conditional sentences. They may understand the syntactic changes of each type, but they may have difficultiers in grasping the semantic of all types. Conditional sentence of type one may be easier to understand since it has same meaning in Indonesian, but both type two and three of conditional sentencesmay cause problems since according to the students, these types do not exist in Indonesian language.

The students of Indonesia do not realize that unlike type one of conditional sentences, both type two and three can not be translated as jika, but seandainya. As in If I had wings I would fly to the moon, which should be translated as

seandainya (not jika) saya punya sayap, saya akan terbang ke bulan. Students’ on

awareness of the differences in the meaning of the conditional sentences that can be seen through the way they translate the conditional sentences might be seen through the way they translate the conditional sentences.

There are two clauses in conditional sentences, they are subordinate clause and main clause; therefore, they are syntactically more complex than many other structures. Furthermore, the students must have mastered the system of English tense-aspect as good as the modal auxiliaries and negation.3 It might be not easy

2

Paul Robert, Understanding Grammar, (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1954), p. 123.

3

Marianne Celce Murcia and Diane Larsen Freeman’s, The Grammar Book, 2nd Edition.,

for most students to share their expressions by using type two of conditional sentences because it is harder to write sentences in English language rather than to do it in Indonesian language since English language distinguishes a lot from their mother tongue due to its grammar, systems, patterns and rules.

From that situation, in the process of making type two of conditional sentences, the students may do some errors and mistakes. While errors and mistakes are two different things as defined by some experts; Errors cannot be self-corrected by the students while mistake can be.4 Hence, errors analysis takes an important role to identify what kinds of errors that the students do the most in using type two of conditional sentences, the causes of errors and mistakes happen in students’ language learning.

Globalization era that demands people to be competitive has constantly changed the students today become open minded and more critical than their preceding generations. SMA Dua Mei Ciputat set up type two of conditional sentences in syllabi to the second grade students.

This fact enhances not only the need to fulfill the writer’s curiosity of how good the students use type two of conditional sentences, but also the need to know how well the students whom called critical in their thoughts. Therefore, the writer would like to do the field research at the place.

Based on the research the writer did at SMA Dua Mei, he found so many problems faced by the second year students who were able to understand what kind of modal and tense they had to use in type two of conditional sentences. As a matter of fact, the students’ errors in using type two of conditional sentences may be caused by the situation and condition that the students often face in classroom as the teacher delivers the materials; lack of games while the students are getting bored, no appraisal while the students are very bright in a lesson, lack of creativity in developing teaching method in classroom in order that the students might be more attractive and curious with every single thing the teacher says, students’ mother tongue, but there is still a national examination), limited facilities,

4

Douglas Brown, Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, 4th Edition (New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.,2000), p. 217

uncontrolled classroom situation, too many students in one class, low motivation from the students, no sufficient facilities available, and also none of supporting environment which help the students develop their ability.

From the explanations above, the writer is interested in analyzing students’ errors in using type two of conditional sentences. The writer would like to carry out a research under the title ERRORS ANALYSIS ON THE SECOND GRADE STUDENTS OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL IN USING TYPE TWO OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES AT SMA DUA MEI.

B.The Limitation and Scope of the Problems

In this study, the writer focused on analyzing the second grade students’ grammatical errors on using type two of conditional sentences at SMA Dua Mei Ciputat. To be more focused, the problem is limited on analyzing the students’ grammatical errors on using type two of conditional sentences that are based on Betty Azar’s grammatical error classification. Here are the classifications: singular-plural, word form, word choice, verb tense, add word, omit word, word order, incomplete sentence, spelling, punctuation, capitalization, article, meaning not clear and run on sentence.5

C.The Formulation of the Problems

Based on the background of the study, the writer formulates her problem as follows:

1. What are the students’ errors in using type two of conditional sentences? 2. Why do the students make errors in using type two of conditional sentences?

D.The Objectives of the Reseacrh

In order to guide the analysis in the research, the objectives are to obtain some clear information about the students’ errors, and to know the reason why the students make errors in using type two of conditional sentences. In addition, the

5

Bety Schrampfer Azar, Understanding and Using English Grammar, 2nd Edition, (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1992), p. A29.

writer expects that this ‘skripsi’ will be useful for the English teachers in teaching

type two of conditional sentences and for the senior high school students in second year to anticipate the mastery level that the may face in learning the type two of conditional sentences.

E.The Significances of the Reseacrh

Theoretically, the research can hopefully be useful for english teachers to

know the students’ errors in using type two of conditional sentences and to make them easier to understand using type two of conditional sentences.

Not only that, the students may also know the right formula of type two of conditional sentences. Besides, the writer is able to recognize some students’ errors in using type two of conditional sentences, and the way out to solve them.

Practically, the research can be a good reference for the teachers who teach type two of conditional sentences in order to be able to minimize a number of errors and mistakes the students generally do by the simple way. However, the students may correctly apply what they have been taught in terms of type two of conditional sentences. Also, the writer are going to able to make the students easier to understand in using type two of conditional sentences well.

6

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A. Errors Analysis

W. R. Lee first introduced errors analysis in 1957, and it gained popularity in the 1970s. Although, the field of errors analysis in Second Language Acquisition was established in the 1970s by S. P. Corder and colleagues, errors analysis was an alternative to contrastive analysis.1

According to David Crystal, “Error analysis in language teaching and

learning is the study of the unacceptable forms produced by someone in learning a language, especially foreign language”.2 Besides, Pit Corder states in his book that error analysis is carried out in three successive stages, they are:

1) Recognition of Errors

It is crucially dependent upon interpretation of the learners’ intentions.

2) Description of Errors

In this step, one tries to show they have failed to realize the intended message. 3) Explanation of Errors

Explanation is still largely speculative because of our limited knowledge of the psychological and neurological process involved in language learning.3

So the writer tries to conclude that the errors analysis is a way of looking at errors made by the learners of the target language, as a source of information to the teachers, which in turns helps them correct the students’ errors, and improves the effectiveness of their teaching.

1. The Differences between Errors and Mistakes

Learning a language is fundamentally process that involves making of mistakes or errors. The mistakes include with vocabulary items, grammatical pattern, and sound patters as well.

1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/second language acquistion. 12 September 2011 2

David Crystal, An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Languages, (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), p. 125.

3

James (1998) differentiates between errors and mistakes. He defines errors as a systematic mistakes due to lack of language competence while mistakes refers to performance errors because of a random guess or slip. While errors cannot be self-corrected, mistakes can be self-corrected if the deviation is pointed out to the speaker.4

Meanwhile, Edge (1989) offers simpler definitions that are especially important for classroom teachers to keep in mind. He states that a slip or mistake is what a learner van self-correct.5 Furthermore, Corder (1967) defines mistakes as a random performance caused by fatigue, excitement, etc; therefore, it can readily be self-corrected. Errors are systematic deviation made by learners who have not yet mastered the rules of the target language. Consequently, learners cannot self-correct an error because it is a product reflective of the learner’s stage of target language development, or underlying competence.6

To sum up, mistakes are failure to use language because of slip of the tongue, or spelling. The learner easily corrects this failure since they conceptually understand the language system. On the other hand, errors are mistakes that the students make due to lack of competence. They are not able to do self-correction because they do not know the concept.

2. The Causes of Errors

Errors occur for many reasons. One obvious cause is interference from the native language. The learners may make errors because they assume that the target language and their native language are similar. While in fact they are different, they generalize the similarity between the target language and their mother tongue known usually as ‘overgeneralization’.

Another obvious cause is simply an incomplete knowledge of the target language. The students are asked to produce words or sentences that they have not yet learnt in grammar; therefore they often might made several mistakes. For

4

Douglas Brown, Principles of Language Learning and Teaching 4th Edition., (New York: Longman, 2000), p. 217.

5

Douglas Brown, Principles of Language Learning and Teaching 4th Edition., ...p. 217. 6

Diane-Larsen Freeman, and Michael H. Long, An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research, (New York: Longman. 1991), pp. 59–60.

example, English has different tenses to indicate time of happening, such as present, past, and future, while Indonesian language does not. Therefore, these differences obviously cause many Indonesian learners make errors in tenses.

John Norrish exposes three types and causes of errors:

a. Carelessness: it is often closely related to lack of motivation. Many teachers will admit that it is not always the students’ fault if he loses interest; perhaps the materials and/or the style of presentation do not suit him.

b. First language interference: It was commonly believed until fairly recently that learning a language (mother tongue or a foreign language)

was a matter of habit formation. The learners’ utterances were thought to be gradually ‘shaped’ towards those of the language he was learning. For instance, in English ‘some’ and ‘any’ are used in different ways. c. Translation: it should be made clear at this point that the distinction

between ‘interference’ is that what takes place is largely unconscious in

the mind of the learner.7

Meanwhile, Brown (2000) states that “Causes of errors are inter-lingual transfer, intra-lingual transfer, context of learning, and communication

strategies.”8

For more details, please look at the explanations below: a. Inter-lingual transfer

Inter-lingual transfer is cause of error from transferring knowledge or grammar into the target language. It means the native language interference the target language in terms of patterns, system or rules.

b. Intra-lingual transfer

Intra-lingual transfer refers to errors caused by the lack competence of the language being learnt (TL). There are items produced by the learner that does not reflect the structure of the mother tongue, but generalizations based on partial exposure to the target language. The learner tries in this case to derive the rules behind the data to which has been exposed by the learner, and may develop hypotheses that correspond neither to the mother tongue nor to the target language.

7

John Norrish, Language Learners and Their Errors, (London: Macmillan, 1983), pp. 21– 26.

8

Douglas Brown, Principles of Language Learning and Teaching 4th Edition., (New York: Longman, 2000), pp. 223–227.

c. Context of learning

A third major source of error, although it overlaps both types of transfer, it

is the context of learning. “Context” refers, for example, to the classroom with its

teacher and its material in the case of school learning or the social situation in the case of untutored second language learning. In a classroom context, the teacher or the textbook can lead the learner to make faulty hypotheses about the language. Students often make errors because of a misleading explanation from the teacher, faulty presentation of a structure or word in a textbook, or even because of a pattern that was rottenly memorized in a drill, but it is improperly contextualized.

In addition, teacher may provide incorrect information-not an uncommon occurrence-by way of a misleading definition, word, or grammatical generalization. Another manifestation of language learned in classroom contexts is the occasional tendency on the part of learners to give in contracted and inappropriately formal forms of language. The sociolinguistic context of natural, untutored language acquisition can give rise to certain acquisition that may itself be a source of error. For example, a Japanese immigrant who lived in a predominantly Mexican American area of a US city produced a learner language that was an interesting blend of Mexican American English and the standards English colored by his Japanese accent.

d. Communication strategies

Communication strategies are a means whereby a learner can express

himself in the language he is learning, using some sort of ‘inter language’ as a

half-way house between his own and his target language.9

In conclusion, there are some aspects that may lead errors in learning the target language. The cause of errors may come from the interference of native language to the target one, the lack of competence of the target language, the learning environment, and the personal learning strategies.

9

3. The Classification of Errors

Azar in her book explains that there are thirteen kinds of errors that the students frequently make in their writing, as follows:

a. SINGULAR-PLURAL

The sentence “He have been here for six months” should be replaced by “He has been here for six months”.

b. WORD FORM

The sentence “I saw a beauty picture” should be replaced by “I saw a beautiful picture”.

c. WORD CHOICE

The sentence “She got on the taxi” should be replaced by “She got into the taxi.

d. VERB TENSE

The sentence “He is here since June” should be replaced by “He has been here since June”.

e. ADD A WORD

The sentence “I want __ go to the zoo” should be replaced by “I want to go

to the zoo”.

f. WORD ORDER

The sentence “I saw five times that movie” should be replaced by “I saw that movie five times”.

g. INCOMPLETE SENTENCE

The sentence “I went to bed. Because I was tired” should be replaced by “I went to bed because I was tired”.

h. SPELLING

The sentence “An accident occured” should be replaced by “An accident occurred”.

i. PUNCTUATION

The sentence “What did he say.” should be replaced by “What did he say?”

j. CAPITALIZATION

The sentence “I am studying english” should be replaced by “I am studying English”.

k. ARTICLE

The sentence “I had accident” should be replaced by “I had an accident”. l. MEANING NOT CLEAR

The sentence “He borrowed some smoke. ( ? ? ? )”. m.RUN-ON SENTENCE

The sentence “My roommate was sleeping, we didn’t want to wake her up” should be replaced by “My roommate was sleeping. We didn’t want to wake her

up”. 10

4. The Procedures of Errors Analysis

In the language teaching, either a native language or a second language

teaching, study about the students’ errors is very important. Theo Van Els and

friends states that there are some procedures in errors analysis, namely; a. Identification of errors

b. Description of errors c. Explanation of errors d. Evaluation of errors

e. Preventing/correction of errors11

The first step in the process of analysis is identification of errors. In this

step, teachers recognize the students’ errors from the task given. The second step

is the description of errors begun when identification stages have taken place. The

description of the students’ errors involves classification of sort of errors made by

the students.

The third step is explanation of errors that can be regarded as a linguistic problem. This step attempts to account for how the errors can happen and why the

10

Bety Schrampfer Azar, Understanding and Using English Grammar, 2nd Edition, (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1992), p. A29.

11

Theo Van Els and friends, Applied Linguistics and the Learning and Teaching of Foreign Languages, (London: A Division of Hodder & Stoughton, 1983), p. 47.

errors occur. The fourth step is the evaluation of errors in which the teachers will give the task to the students.

Finally, the last step is the process of analysis is correction of errors where the teachers check the result from the task done by the students. Then, they correct the errors that the students made.

Example:

Table 2.1

The Examples of the Procedures of Errors Analysis Identification

of Errors

Classification of Errors Description

Explanation Correction Causes of Errors

I not go to school every Sunday

Omit a word ‘not’ should be preceded

by ‘do’

I do not go to school every Sunday

Inter-lingual Transfer

I am want to buy that gorgeous stuff

Add a word ‘am’ should be omitted

I want to buy that gorgeous stuff

Context of Learning

B. Grammar

For most people, the essence of language lies in grammar. It enables us to make statements about how to use our language. In brief, grammar represents

one’s linguistic competence; therefore it include many aspects of linguistic knowledge: the sound system (phonology), the system of meaning (semantics), the rules of word formation (morphology), the rules of sentence (syntax), and the vocabulary of words (lexicon).

“Language without grammar would be chaotic: countless words without the indispensable guidelines for how they can be ordered and modified. A study of

grammar (syntax and morphology) reveals a structure and regularity, which lies at the basic of language and enables us to talk of the language system.”12

1. The Definitions of Grammar

Penny Ur noted that “Grammar is defined as words are put together to make

correct sentences it does not only affect how the units of words are combined in

order to make correct sentences but also affects their meaning.”13

Besides, Paul

Robert noted that “Grammar is a body of generalization about how people says

thing in order to make generalization, we must agree on the meaning of terms for the things we wish to talk about. Grammar accuracy is only part of communication to convey a message, where grammar is merely a tool. According

to Scott Thornburry (1999) wrote “Grammar is partly the study of what forms (or

structures) are possible in language. Traditionally, grammar has been concerned almost exclusively with analysis at the level of the sentence formed rules that

govern how a language’s sentences are formed.”14

In conclusion, grammar is a field of linguistic that involves all the various things that make up the rules of language.

2. The Types of Grammar

Grammar may be separated into two common broad categories: descriptive

and prescriptive. Both views of grammar are in wide use, although in general, linguists tend towards a descriptive approach to grammar, while people are teaching a specific language; English, might tend towards a more prescriptive approach.15 David Crystal lists six types of grammar: descriptive grammar, pedagogical grammar, prescriptive grammar, reference grammar, theoretical grammar, and traditional grammar.16

Kathryn Riley and Frank Parker state that there are four types of grammar;

prescriptive grammar is primarily interested in constructing rules of usage for the prestige variety of a language, descriptive grammar is primarily interested in

12

Paul Batstone, Grammar, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1950), p. 4 13

Penny Ur, A Course in Language Teaching Practice and Theory, (London: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 75.

14

Scott Thornburry, How to teach grammar, (London: Longman, 1999), p. 1. 15

http://www.answers.com/topic/grammar, 8 Juli 2009 16

describing the basic sentence patterns of all varieties of a language. Then,

generative grammar is primarily interested in discovering those principles of sentence formation that are part of the human biological endowment, performance grammar is primarily interested in the effects of context and real-time limitations on language use.17

In the writer’s opinion, grammar can be divided into two main points;

descriptive and prescriptive grammar that can be broken down again into many different points with different point of views.

C.Sentences

Sentence is a set of words expressing a statement, a question or an order, usually containing a subject and a verb.18 Before the conditional sentences are discussed, it may be necessary to know about the definition of sentence. A sentence is a complete meaning. When we speak, our sentences may be extremely involved or even unfinished, yet we can still convey our meaning through intonation, gesture, facial expression, etc. When we write, these devices are not available, so sentences have to be carefully structured and punctuated. In addition, a written sentence must be begun with a capital letter and with a full stop (.), a question mark (?), or an exclamatory mark (!).19

1. The Definitions of Sentences

As Hornby states in his dictionary “Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary

of Current English” is not only the largest grammatical unit consisting of phrases, but also clause which is used to express a statement, question, command, etc.

Meanwhile, traditional grammar translates a sentence in one of two ways. First, it is defined by meaning. Sentence is a complete thought. Second, it is defined by function, stating that sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. The definition that offers here includes both functional and formal characteristics

17

Kathryn Riley and Frank Parker, English Grammar: Prescriptive, Descriptive,

Generative, Performance, (Boston: A Pearson Education Company, 1998), p. 3.

18

A S Hornby, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 7th Edition., (Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 1383.

19

L.G. Alexander, Longman English Grammar, (New York: Longman Publishing, 1988), p. 2.

of a sentence; a sentence is a full prediction containing a subject plus a predicate with a finite verb. 20

In conclusion, sentences are defined as group of words consisting of subject and verb having a complete meaning.

2. The Types of Sentences

There are four types of sentences; simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence, compound complex sentence.

a. Simple sentencecontains one full subject and predicate. It takes the form of: 1) A statement, e.g. He lives in New York.

2) A question, e.g. How old are you?

3) A request, e.g. Please close the door.(The subject you is understood). 4) An exclamation, e.g. What a terrible temper she has!

b. Compound sentencecontains two or more sentences joined by:

1) Punctuation alone, e.g. The weather was very bad; all classes were canceled.

2) Punctuation alone and a conjunctive adverb, e.g. The weather was very bad; therefore all classes were canceled.

3) A coordinate conjunction (and, or, but, yet, so, far), e.g. The weather was very bad, so all classes were canceled.

When such sentences are joined coordinately, they are each called independent clauses.

c. Compound sentencecontains one or more dependent (or subordinate) clauses. A dependent clause contains a full subject and predicate beginning with a word that attaches the clause to an independent clause (called the main clause). Here are the clauses:

1) Adverbial clause, e.g. All classes were canceled because the weather was bad.

2) Adjective clause, e.g. Children who are under twelve years must be accompanied by their parents.

20

Marcella Frank, Modern English: A Practical Reference Guide, (New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc., 1972), p. 220.

3) Noun clause, e.g. I can’t understand why you did such a thing.

d. Compound complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.

All classes were canceled because the weather was bad, and students were told to listen to the radio to find out when classes would begin again.21

D. The Conditional Sentences

A conditional sentence is used to express something expected or unexpected which may or may not be occured. It consists of two clauses, a dependent clause beginning with if – clause (or another conjunction performing the general function), and a main clause which gives the result of the if clause.22 Martin Parott

wrote that “conditional sentences consist of two clauses a main – (‘conditional’) clause containing a verb in a form with will or would, and a subordinate clause that is introduced by if”.23

1. The Definition of Conditional Sentences

According to Longman Dictionary, conditionl sentence is “one that begin with ‘if’ or ‘unless’ expressing something that must be true or happen before something else can be true or happen”.24

Pamela J. Sharpe defines “conditional as

statement with ‘if’ or ‘unless’, they are opinions about the conditional influence result and opinions about the result”.25_{In the writer’s opinion, it can be concluded}

that conditional sentences are sentences with “if” or “unless” expressing situation or condition that might come true or happen before something else may happen. For more details, there are some explanation below:

I will help you if you want; He would come if you called.

21

Marcella Frank, Modern English, Exercise for Non–native Speakers Part II: Sentences and Complex Structures, (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1972), p. 1.

22

George E. Wishon and Julia Burks, Let’s Write English, (New York: American Book Company, 1980), p. 249.

23

Martin Parott, Grammar for English Language Teachers, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 231.

24

Longman Dictionary of contemporary English, (England: New Delhi: Gobsons Paper Limited).

25

Pamela J. Sharpe, How to Prepare for the TOEFL, (Jakarta: Binarupa Aksara, 2000), p. 106.

What expressed in the main clause, it depends – or is conditional – on what expressed in the subordinate if clause;

I will turn on the heating if it gets colder.

The if clause can come first or last in the sentence with no change in meaning. Notice that when the if clause comes first, it is followed by a comma;

If we did not have to study, we could go out tonight or we could go out tonight if we did not have to study. 26 Here are alternates to if stating sort of conditions in conditional sentences:

a. Negatives Conditions

We often use unless to express a negative conditions. It is similar to if ... not

or only if:

1) Unless you have got a doctor’s note to say you have passed the medicine, they

will not allow you to go on the activity holiday.

(If you do not havea doctor’s note ..., they will not allow you ...)

2) Iwould not be willing to help you out again unlessyou paid me.

(I would help you only if you paid me.)27 b. Necessary Conditions

We use the conjunctions provided/providing(that), so/as long as and on the condition (that) to emphasize that the condition is necessary to the result. They all mean onlyif:

1) The system will not have to be drained provided that antifreeze has been added.

2) Expenses will be reimbursed on the condition thatall receipts are submitted.

To express a necessary condition for something to have happened in the past, we use but for + noun phrase:

3) They would have all perished, but for the quick thiniking of the driver.

(... if it had not been for the quick thinking of the driver.)28

26

Michael A. Ple and Mar Munoz Page, TOEFL Preparation Guide, (New Jersey: Cliffs Publishers, 1994), p. 115.

27

Mark Foley and Diane Hall,Longman Advanced Learner;’s Grammar....p. 123. 28

c. Imaginary Conditions

We use suppose/supposing (that)... and what if ... to talk about imaginary conditions.

1) Suppose he asked you to go to the cinema with him, would you go?

2) What if the money doesn’t arrive on time?

We often use in case to imagine a precaution necessary for a situation: 3) She gave me the key to get in the house in caseyou were out.

4) In case of(an) emergency, pull the cord above the bath.

d. Unexpected Conditions

We use even if to express a condition that is unexpected in the circumstances:

e.g. Even if they do go down with flu after they have had the vacation, it’s likely to be less serious.

e. Alternative Conditions

We use whether ... or not to express alternative conditions (for conditional patterns):

e.g. They will deliver the furniture whetherthere is someone to receive it or not.29

2. The Types of Conditional Sentences

There are three kinds of conditional sentences in English. Each kind contains a different pair of tenses. Each type contains many varieties that are possible, but the students who are studying the conditional sentences for the first time may ignore it and concentrate on the basic forms. In this “skripsi”, the writer

uses the term ‘if clause’ and ‘main clause’ as A.J Thompson and A.V Martinet

stated in their book “A Practical English Grammar”, although another term also is used in this clause. Betty Schramfer Azar used term ‘if clause’ and ‘result

clause’.30

29

Mark Foley and Diana Hall, Longman Advanced Learners’ Grammar, ...p. 123. 30

Betty Schramfer Azar, Fundamentals of English Grammar, (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1992), p. 389.

a. Type One of Conditional Sentences

Type one of conditional is defined as a sentence that express a future-possible condition refers to an action that may not taken place in the future. The present tense of the verb is used in the if clause, and the future tense is used in the main clause. The if clause may precede or follow the main clause.31

This conditional type is also called possible conditional in which the if

clause states the condition; the result clause states the result. In addition, simple present is used in the if clause. The explanation will be described more through the table on the next page:

Table 2.2

The Formula of Type One of Conditional Sentences Started from If Clause Ended with Main Clause

If Clause Main Clause

If + S1 + Verb 1 S2 + will + Verb 1

If it gets colder tonight If I learn

I will turn on the heating. I will pass the exam.

Table 2.3

The Formula of Type One of Conditional Sentences Started from Main Clause Ended with If Clause

Main Clause If Clause

S1 + will + Verb 1 If + S1 + Verb 1

He will get up early,

I will go shopping this afternoon

If he catches the fast train. If I have enough time.

This type of sentence implies that the action in the if clause is quite probable. The meaning here is present or future, but the verb in if – clause is in present, not a future tense.

1) Variation in main clause

Except from if + present +future, it can also be used:

31

a) If + present + may/might (to express possibility), for example:

If the rain gets heavier the rice fields may/might be flooded. If the dry season becomes longer the famine may/might happen.

b) If + present + may (permission) or can (ability or permission), for examples:

If your documents are in order you may/can leave at once. (permission) If it stops raining we cn go out. (ability or permission)

c) If + present + must, should (command or advice), for examples:

If you want to lose weight, you must/should eat less bread. (command)

If you want to lose weight you had better eat less bread. (advice) d) If + present + another present tense

Two present tense are used to express natural laws and habitual reactions, for example:

If you heat ice it turns to water.

2) Variation of the if clause

The present perfect or present continuous may replace the present tense in type one:

a) If you have finished that exercises I will show you how to do the next one.

b) If you are staying for another night, I will ask the manager to give you a better room.32

In this conditional type, modal can also be used in the result clause.

a) If the result of the test is negative, you’ll receive notification through the post.

b) If we want to vote, you must register. 33

Also, we can use the first conditional to express a variety of functions, which are explained on following page:34

32

A.J Thompson and A.V Martinet, A Practical English Grammar 2nd edition., (New York: Oxford University Press: 1986), p. 218.

33

Majorie Fuchs and Margaret Boner, Grammar Express for Self in Study or the Classroom, (England: Pearson Education Limited, 2003), p. 283.

34

- Commands

If you get home late, don’t wake us up!

Don’t forget to close the windows if you go out, will you?

- Offers

I’ll call the hotek if you don’t have plenty of time

I’ll be there if you want to wait for me in 10 minutes.

- Suggestions

Shall we go out tomorrow if the weather’s good?

Shall you join us if your parents come with me for the gathering?

- Warnings

I’ll call the police if you don’t leave right now!

Note that we use an imperative in the main clause for commands. Actually, to make this conditional pattern more formal, we can omit if and use should

before the subject, as the example below:

Should you be less than delighted with our product, we will refund your money immediately.

b. Type Two of Conditional Sentences:

This kind of conditional sentences describes a situation, which does not exist or is unreal.35 Such conditions are either impossible to realize or are not likely to be realized in the near future. It does not expect that the condition in the

if clause to become a fact.36

Type two of conditional sentences or second conditional is also known as the unlikely or improbable conditional which is used to talk about unreal, untrue,

imagined or impossible conditions in present. John Shepherd stated “there are four

main points for students to learn, as follows:

1) The pattern is if + past, conditional (or vice versa) 2) After if, we use the past tense.

3) The conditional verb goes in the “non-if” half of the sentences.

35

Marcella Frank, Modern English, Exercise for Non–native Speakers Part II: Sentences and Complex Structures, (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,: 1972), p. 33.

36

4) This pattern is used to describe imaginary – often impossible – events”.37

The verb in the if clause is in the past tense; the verb in the main clause is in the conditional sentences. The formulas will be explained more through the table below:

Table 2.4

The Formula of Type Two of Conditional Sentences Started from If Clause Ended with Main Clause

If Clause Main Clause

If + S1 + V2... S2 + Would + V1...

If I sold my boat, I would take you to dinner.

If I were snowing, I would drive you home

If I lived in Europe, I would eat pizza often.

There is no difference in time between the first and second types of conditional sentence. They refer to present or future, and past tense in the if – clause is not true past but a subjunctive, which indicates unreality (as in the first example above) or improbability (as in the second example above).38 Here are the explanations below:

1) Variation in Main Clause will be presented below:

Similarly, the past tense can be used with might or could:

If you tried again, you would succeed. (certain result)

If you tried again, you might succeed. (possible result)

If it stopped snowing, you could go out. (ability or permission)39 2) Variation in the ifclause will be explained more below:

3) If + past continuous

If I were going by boat, I’d feel much happier.

4) If + past perfect

If he had taken my advice, he would be a rich man now.

37

John Shepherd, Multilevel English Grammar Programme, (London: Prentice Hall Macmillan, 1995), p. 144.

38

A.J Thompson and A.V Martinet, A Practical,.. p. 197. 39

Marcella Frank also states in her book „Modern English’: “A conditional clause containing a past unreal form may be combined by a main clause

containing a present unreal form”, e.g. If the boy had listened to his parents last year, he would not be in trouble now.40

c. Type Three of Conditional Sentences:

This kind of conditional sentences indicates past time, unreal, and unfulfilled situation.41 The verb in the If clause is in the past perfect tense; the verb in the main clause is in the perfect conditional. In addition, it explains about past time and the condition cannot be fulfilled, because the action in the if clause did not happen.42 The formulas will be explained more through the table below:

Table 2.5

The Formula of Type Three of Conditional Sentences Started from If Clause Ended with Main Clause

If Clause Main Clause

If + S1 + had + past perfect S2 +would +have + past participle

If we had not wasted time We would not have missed the train.

Table 2.6

The Formula of Type Three of Conditional Sentences Started from Main Clause Ended with If Clause

H

40

Marcella Frank, Modern English, (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1972), p. 37. 41

George Wishonand Julia Burks, Let’s Write..., p. 251. 42

A.J Thompson and A.V Martinet, A Practical English..., p. 200.

MainClause If Clause

S + would + have + past participle

If + S1 + had + past perfect

I would have been more sympathetic,

If she had not accused me of lying.

Here we know that the conditional sentences can not be fulfilled, because the sentence refers only to past event. Also, there is variation in the basic form in this type of conditional sentences. More explanation will be conveyed below: Variation in the Basic Form

Might or could can also be used in these following sentences:

a. If we had found him earlier, we could have saved his life. (Ability) b. If we had found him earlier, we might have saved his life. (Possibility)

c. If our documents had been in order we could have left at once. (Ability or permission)

There are some additions in conditional sentences forms likeinversion of subject and auxiliary, with if omitted and if only;

1) Inversion of Subject and Auxiliary, with if omitted

Where if is followed by an auxiliary verb, e.g. by were, had, or should, it is possible to invert auxiliary and omit the if :

a) If I were rich = were I rich (were must be used with this contraction, never was).

b) If he had known = had he known.

c) If war should break out = should war break out.

2) Inversion of Subject and Auxiliary, with if omitted

Only can be placed after if which indicates hope, a wish, or regret according to the tense to be used with.

If only + present tense/will expresses hope:

a) If only he comes in time = we hope he will come.

b) If only he will listen to her = we hope he will be willing to listen.

If only + past/past perfect express regret (it has same meaning as wish + past/past perfectly):

a) If only he did not smoke! = we wish he did not smoke or we are sorry he smokes.

If only + would express regret about a present action as an alternative to if only +

past tense

c) If only he would drive more slowly = we are sorry that he is not willing to drive more slowly!

As Penny Ur states that the use of conditonal sentences (any type) to describe result of actions, transformations, and also some free composition; oral and written.

The ‘firstconditional’ is used to describe superstitions; free composition of single sentences, oral or written. For example:

a) You will have bad luck, if you walk under a ladder.

b) If you walk under a ladder, you will have bad luck.

The ‘second conditional’ is used to express fulfilled desires; free composition of sentences; mostly written, and to describe hypothetical situations; written and spoken responses. For example:

a) I would take more exercise if I were good at sports.

b) If I were good at sports, I would take more exercise.

The ‘third conditional’ is used to describe contrary – to – fact past situations; written work as basis for discussion.43 For example:

a) I would have got a better job if I had gone to University.

b) If I had gone to University, I would have got a better job.

3) The Function of Conditional Sentences

In grammar, conditional sentences are sentences discussing factual implications or hypothetical situations and their consequences. Languages use a variety of conditional constructions and verb forms (such as the conditional mood) to form such sentences.

Full conditional sentences contain two clauses: the condition or protasis, and the consequence or apodosis.

If it rains [condition], (then) the picnic will be cancelled [consequence].

43

Penny Ur, Grammar Practices: A Practical Guide for Teachers, (Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 78–82.

Syntactically, the condition is the subordinate clause, and the consequence is the main clause. However, the properties of the entire sentence are primarily determined by the properties of the protasis (condition) (its tense and degree of factualness).

4) The Usages of Conditional Sentences

Conditional sentence may be used in three kinds of types; therefore it must be appropriate in meaning and form that is explained by a table below:

Table 2.7

The Brief Explanation of Usages of Conditional Sentences Meaning of the

if clause

Verb Form in the if clause

Verb form in the

“Result Clause”

a. If I have enough time, I write

to my parents every week.

b. If I have enough time tomorrow, I will write to my parents.

True in the present/future

Simple Present

Simple Present Simple Future

Meaning of the if clause

Verb Form in the if clause

Verb form in the

“Result Clause”

a. IfI had enough time, I would write to my parents. (the truth is that I do not have enough time, so I will not write to them).

Untrue in the present/future

Simple Past

Would + simple form Untrue in the

past

Past Perfect

Would have

+ past participle

a. If I had had enough time, I would have written to my parents yesterday. (the truth is that I did not have enough time, so I did not write to my parents).

E. Type Two of Conditional Sentences

This kind of conditional sentence describes a situaation which does not exist or is unreal.44 Type two of conditional sentences are sometimes called

the’second’.’hypothetical’ or ‘unreal’ conditional. We actually use them to refer

to or speculate about something that is (or that we perceive to be) impossible or

‘contrary to fact’.45

The verb in the if clause is in the past tense; the verb in the main clause is in the conditional sentences.

For example:

- If I had a map, I would lend it to you.

- If someone tried to blackmail me, I would tell the police.

There is no difference in time between the first and second types of conditional sentences. Type two, like type one, refers to the present or future, and the past tense in the if clause is not a true past but a subjunctive, which indicates unreality (as in the first example above) or improbability (as in the second example above).46 In this type of conditional sentences, the subjunctive “were” is used for all persons: if I were (instead of If I was), if he were, if we were, if you were, etc.47

1. The Form of Type Two of Conditional Sentences

The form of type two of conditional sentences will be explained by the following table below:

44

Marcella Frank, Modern English (New Jersey: Prentice Hall: 1972), p. 33. 45

Martin Parrot, Grammar for English Language Teachers (London: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 233–234.

46

A.J Thompson and A.V Martinet, A Practical English Grammar, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 198.

47

George E. Wishon and Julia M. Burks, Let’s write English Grammar, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 198.

Table 2.8

The Brief Explanation of Affirmative Statements in Type Two of Conditional Sentences

Affirmative Statements If clause:

Simple Past

Result Clause: Would + Base Form of Verb

If

he loved

her,

he would get married.

he were

in love,

he would get married.

Table 2.9

The Brief Explanation of Short Answer in Type Two of Conditional Sentences

Short Answer

Affirmative Negative

Yes, I would No, I would not.

Table 2.10

The Brief Explanation of WH-Questions in Type Two of Conditional Sentences

WH-Questions

Result Clause If Clause

What would you do If You loved her? You were in live?

Table 2.11

The Brief Explanation of Negative Statements in Type Two of Conditional Sentences

Negative Statements

If Clause: Simple Past Result Clause: Would + Base Form of Verb

If

he did not love

her,

he were not in love,

he would not get

married.

he would not get

married.

Table 2.12

The Brief Explanation of Yes/No Questions in Type Two of Conditional Sentences

Yes/No Questions

Result Clause If Clause

Would I get married If I loved her I were in love?

Look at the explanations below, possible variation of the basic form of type two of conditional sentences:

a. Variation of the main clause

1) Might or could may be used instead of would:

If you tried again, you would succeed (certain result).

If you tried again, you might succeed (possible result).

If I knew her number, I could ring her up (ability).

If he had a permit, he could get a job (ability or permission).

2) The continuous conditional form may be used instead of the simple conditional form:

Tom: Peter is on holiday; he is touring Italy.

3) If + past tense can be followed by another past tense when we wish to express automatic or habitual reactions in the past:

If anyone interrupted him, he got angry.

(whenever anyone interrupted him).

4) When if is used to mean ‘as’ or ‘since’, a variety of tense is possible in

the main clause. If + past tensehere has a past meaning. The sentence is not a true conditional.

Tom: I knew she was short of money.

Ann: If you knew she was short of money, you should have lent her some! Why did not you lend her some?

b. Variation of the if clause

Instead of if + simple past we can have: 1) If + past continuous

We are going by air and I hate flying. If we were going by boat, I would feel much happier.

2) If + past perfect

If he had taken my advice, he would be a rich man now.

(this is a mixture of type two and three).48

3) Even though the time reference in the if clause is the present or future, past verb forms are used in the if clause.

Correct : If we had money, we would buy a car today.

Incorrect : If we have money, we would buy a car today.

Would can be used in the if clause only when the meaning is “be willing

to”.

If you would take the time to study (If you were willing to take the time to study), you could be an excellent student.

4) The subjunctive were is used for all persons.

If I were rich, I would quit my job immediately. If she were rich, she would quit her job immediately. If they were rich, they would quit their jobs immediately.

48

5) The modals in the independent clause are in the form they take in indirect speech.

6) Remember that with type two of conditional sentences, you are stating the opposite of present truths.

(Present truth: I don’t have any money, so I can’t lend you any.)

If I had some money, I could lend you some.

(Present truth: I’m not concentrating, so this page is difficult to

understand.)

If I were concentrating, this page would not be difficult to understand.

7) If may be omitted in the if clause when it is followed by an auxiliary verb such as should and were. Note that the auxiliary precedes the noun when

if is omitted.

Should I see him today, I’ll tell him to call you. (If I should see him today,...)

Were he home now, you could call him. (If he were home now,...).49

2. The Function of Type Two of Conditional Sentences

This kind of conditional sentence describes a situation which does not exist or is unreal.50 Type two of conditional sentences are sometimes called

the’second’.’hypothetical’ or ‘unreal’ conditional. We actually use them to refer

to or speculate about something that is (or that we perceive to be) impossible or

‘contrary to fact’.51

3. The Usages of Type Two of Conditional Sentences

As stated before, every type of conditional sentences has a specific form and usage. The writer will try to describe usage of type two of conditional sentences. Which is basically used:

a) When the supposition is contrary to known facts:

If I were you, I’d plant some trees round the house.

49

Carroll Washington Pollock, Communicate What You Mean, (New Jersey, Prentice Hall Inc, 1982), p. 229.

50

Marcella Frank, Modern English (New Jersey: Prentice Hall: 1972), p. 33. 51

Martin Parrot, Grammar for English Language Teachers (London: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 233–234.

(In fact I am not you.)

b) When we do not expect the action in the if clause to take place:

If a burglar came into my room at night. I’d throw something at him.

(In fact I do not expect a burglar to come in.)

Some If clauses can have either of the above meanings, as the example below:

If he left his bicycle outside, someone would steal it.

‘If he left his bicycle’ could imply ‘but, he does not’ (present meaning, as in ‘I’ above) or ‘but, he does not intend to’ (future meaning, as in two). After

all, the correct meaning is usually clear from the text.

At one time ambiguity of this kind was avoided by using were + infinitive instead of the past tense in type two:

If a burglar were to come ... If he were to leave ...

Nowadays, this use of were is considered rather formal, but it is sometimes found in written English.52

c) It can describe an improbable future event or situation. The condition is unlikely to be fulfilled, because the future event is unlikely to happen:

If the result of the test were positive, we would call you within two days.

d) It can also describes a hypothetical current situation or event, i.e. one which is contrary to know facts. Therefore, it is impossible to fulfill the condition:

If the police were confident of their case against Skykes, surely they wouldn’t hestitate to take him into Custody?

(The police is not confident of their case.)

The choice between the first conditional and the explanation in ‘point c’ of

the second conditional above often depends on how possible the speakers believes in an event to be:

If Mike rings the travel agent tomorrow, he might get ccancellation.

(The speaker thinks that it is likely that Mike will ring the travel agent.)

52

We use type two of conditional sentences to express a variety of functions: 1. Giving Advice (with were)

If I were you, I would take her out to have a candle-light dinner.

2. Polite request

If you could deal with this matter. I’d be very grateful.

3. Desires/regrets

If we didn’t have to work so hard, we could spend more time together.

We can use should + infinitive or were to + infinitive in the second conditional to emphasize that the condition is unlikely to happen, as the example below: 4. If the printer should break down within the first year, we would repair it at our

expense.

5. If you were to listen more carefully, you might understand a little more.

We can put was/were (to) before the subject in order to sound more formal, as the example below:

a) Were you to accept our offer, we could avoid the costs of a court case.

We can make this condition more formal by placing should before the subject:

b) Should the tickets fail to arrive before the departure date, we would arrange to have duplicates waiting at the airport.

The explanation of tense combination of present unreal will be described in the table on the next page:

III.

Match the answers with the alphabet of the following words in the box!

*

1.

I do not

have a pen, but if I …..

, I would lend it to you.

2.

He is busy right now, but if

he ….., he would help us.

3.

The weat

her is cold today, but if it …..

, I would buy that interesting book.

4.

I do not

have enough money, but if I ….., I would go swimming.

5.

I always pay my bills. If I

…..

, I would get in many troubles.

6.

Helium is

lighter than air. If it …..

, a helium-filled balloon would not float upward.

7.

I am not a good moviemaker, but if

I …..

, I would make many great films.

8.

I have to go to class this afternoon,

but if I …..

, I would go downtown with you.

9.

Th

e earth is round. If it …..

, the ocean would have the certain limit to be seen.

10.

Albert Einstein is really brainy

. If he …..

, he could not create the E=Mc

2

formula.

Note: * this part has its own sheet

a. Were not

b. Did

c. Were not

d. Had

e. Did not

f. Were

g. Were not

h. Were not

i. Were not

INTERVIEW SHEET

Date/Day :

Interviewee :

Place :

1.

Apakah kamu senang terhadap pelajaran bahasa inggris sehingga kamu termotivasi?

Jawab:

2.

Dalam pelajaran bahasa inggris, cara belajar apa yang kamu gunakan selama ini?

Jawab:

3.

Apa dengan cara tersebut, kamu dapat meningkatkan prestasi kamu?

Jawab:

4.

Apakah fasilitas untuk belajar bahasa inggris memadai?

Jawab:

5.

Apakah ada pujian yang diberikan jika ada siswa yang berprestasi di kelas?

Jawab:

6.

Apakah kamu dapat mengerti dan memahami pelajaran guru tentang tipe kedua

conditional sentences?

Jawab:

7.

Dimanakah letak kesulitan dalam mempelajari tentang tipe kedua conditional

sentences?

Jawab:

8.

Mengapa kamu mengalami kesulitan dalam mempelajari tipe kedua conditional

sentences?

Jawab:

9.

Bagaimana pendapatmu tentang suasana belajar bahasa Inggris di kelas?

Jawab:

10.

Apakah gurumu selalu memberikan games yang menarik di setiap pertemuan?

Jawab:

No : Istimewa

Hal : Pengajuan Judul Skripsi

Lampiran _{: I (satu) berkas}

Tarigerang, 12Mei2011

Saya yang

Nama NIM

Kepada Yth,

Ketua Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris FITK UIN Jakarta

D i

Tempat

Assalamualaikum Wr. Wb.

bertanda tangan di bawah ini: Muhamad Ridho Pratama 107014000699

Jurusan : Pendidikan Bahasa Inggrid

Fakultas : Ilmu Tarbiyah dan Keguruan

Bermaksud untuk mengajukan judul skripsi sebagai _{salah satu syarat untuk menyelesaikan}

program S-l (strata _{1) UfN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta.Adapun judul yang diajukan adalah:}

ERRORS ANALYSIS ON TIIE SECOND GRADE STT'DENTS OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL IN USING TYPE TWO OF CONDITIONAL

I

SENTENCES AT SMA DUA MEI CIPUTAT

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UIN JAKARTA FITK

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Tahun Akademik

Judul Skripsi

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2 . P e m b a n t u D e k a n B i d a n g A k a d e m i k 3. Mahasiswa yang bersangkutan

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ERRORS ANALYSIS ON THE SECOND GMDE STUDENTS OF SENIOR HIGH

SCHOOL IN USING TYPE TWO OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

AT SMA DUA MEI CIPUTAT

adalah benar mahasiswa/i Fakultas llmu Tarbiyah dan Keguruan UIN Jakarta yang

sedang menyusun skripsi, dan akan mengadakan penelitian (riset) di

instansi/sekolah/madrasah yang Saudara pimpin.

Untuk itu kami mohon Saudara dapat mengizinkan mahasiswa tersebut

melaksanakan penelitian dimaksud.

Atas perhatian dan kerja sama Saudara, kami ucapkan terima kasih'

Wassal a m u' al ai ku m wr.wb.

ikan Bahasa Inggris

YAYASAN PENDIDIKAN

DUA [ilEI

SEKOLAH MENENGA}I ATAS (SMA) I}UA MEI

(TERAKREDTTAST

A)

Jl. H. AMul Gani No. 135 Cempaka Putih Ciputat Timur - Kota Tangerang Selatan

Telp. 7490034, Fax. 74707557

SURAT

KETERANGAN

N o : 2 6 2 / s M A / Y P D M / t x /2 O 1 L

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini :

Nama : Yayat Ruhiat, S.Pd

No.NlP/NPK Jabatan TempatTugas

Dengan ini menerangkan bahwa :

Nama N I M Jurusan Semester

Kepala Sekolah

SMA Dua MeiCiputat

MUHAMAD RIDHO PRATAMA 107014000599

Pendidikan Bahasa lnggris

Vlll ( Delapan )

Nama Mahasiswa tersebut di atas telah mengadakan riset untuk persyaratan pembuatan skripsi

dengan judul : 'ERRORS ANALYSF ON THE SECOND GRADE STT DENT Of SEiltOR Hl€H SCHOOL

lN USTNG TYPE TWO OF COt{DffiONAt SENT€NCES AT SMA DUA MEI CIPUTAT ". Pada tanggal 12

September 2O11 sampai dengan 29 sEPTEMBER 2011.

Demikian surat keterangan ini di buat agar dapat dipergunakan sebagaimana mestinya.

Timur,29 September2ALl Dua Mei