She ordered the troops to attack when it became apparent that to delay any longer would be suicidal. Adverb clause
f. A modifier is any word, phrase, or clause that functions as an adjective or
adverb. In the sentence The bat in the attic is not vampire.
the phrase “in the attic” does something to, modifies, “bat,” telling us which bat. While in the sentence
The vampire flew slowly around the room when he assumed the form of a bat.
there are three modifiers, all acting as adverbs. The single word “slowly” tells us about the way the vampire flew; then a prepositional phrase “around
the room” tells us where the vampire flew; and the subordinate clause “when he assumed the form of a bat” tells us when it happened.
30
2. Sentences Types
a. Simple Sentences
As long as the sentence remains one clause, containing one predicate, it is simple sentence.
31
A sentence can be quite long and yet still be simple by elaborating the predicate with prepositional phrases
32
, e.g. Neal runs with his wife at waterman Gymnasium before classes.
A subject can be long, too, e.g. The ape-man in the gray loincloth, a wooden spear in his hand, attacked.
Or the verb can be elaborated, e.g. The ape-man attacked swiftly, with a sharp cry, from the rocks.
Or we can have a direct object, and the object can be elaborated, e.g. The ape-man attacked the sluggish warriors, those intruders tired from
their lengthy searching. Or the simple sentence can have all its parts elaborated and remain simple e.g.
The ape-man in the gray loincloth, a wooden spear in his hand, attacked the sluggish warriors swiftly from behind the rocks, the boulders shining in the
hot sun.
30
Ibid, p.121
31
Ibid, p.121
32
Ibid, p.121
The basic sentence is still “ The-ape-man attacked,” though by the time we have more definition for each of the parts, more information, and too many
adjectives.
33
b. Compound Sentences
A Compound sentence has two or more main clauses, each containing a subject and a predicate, each describing an action complete in itself. The clauses in the
compound sentence are joined by a connective – “and,” “but,” “or,” or “nor” – or by a semicolon or colon.
34
The economy stagnates and prices rise. We can lower the price of admission or we can stage fewer plays.
He never went the snake house again; he had been revolted by the alligator. In the compound sentence, notice that the two complete clauses are nearly equal
in importance, or coordinate. A compound sentence, of course, can have more than two parts.
35
Lolich pitched a curve, the runner on first sprinted toward second, and Veryzer ran to cover the base.
c. Complex Sentences
If, however, one part of the sentence depends on the other –if the one is the cause of the other, for instance— the sentence is more likely complex than
compound.
36
A complex sentence, then, consists of one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses along with whatever other phrases the sentence
accumulates.
37
Subordinate clause is the clause that depends upon the other, for explanation or completion. A complex sentence would be:
Because the economy stagnates, high prices find new buyers.
38
The first clause in the sentence is subordinate. There are three kinds of subordinate clauses—noun, adjective, and adverb—
which function just like the parts of speech: 1
Main clause 2
Subordinate clauses a
Noun Clauses
33
Ibid, p.122
34
Ibid, p.122
35
Ibid, p.123
36
Ibid.
37
Bob Brannan, A Writer’s Workshop Crafting Paragraphs, Building Essays, Boston: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003, p.503.
38
Donald Hall, Loc Cit,
Noun clauses are subordinate clauses that function the same way single nouns and noun phrases do in a sentence and are frequently used as
subjects,
39
for example: What the candidate said surprised everyone.
Here are some example sentences with noun clauses used in other ways besides as subjects:
40
• Jason mentioned that he would leave for Lawrence in the morning. direct object
• Hoang asked for whatever help his friends would give. object of preposition
• The administration’s feeling is that no one deserves a salary increase. complement
Because noun clauses are an essential part of sentences—unlike many adverb and adjective clauses—they are not set off with commas, and
perhaps for this reason do not usually cause punctuation problems. Here is a list of common cue words that begin noun clauses:
Table I Common Cue Words That Begin Noun Clauses
Who That
Whatever What Where
Whether Which Whose
Whoever When Why
How
Note: Some of these words can also introduce adjective and adverb
clauses.
41
b Adjective Clauses
Adjective clauses also called relative clauses function much like single adjectives and adjective phrases do, describing nouns and pronouns, for
example:
42
I drive a truck that is old. Adjective clauses can begin with several cue words, including whose,
when, where, and why, but usually begin with one of these relative pronouns:
Table II Common Cue Words That Begin Adjective Clauses
39
Bob Brannan, Op Cit, p.498
40
Ibid.
41
Ibid, p.499.
42
Ibid.
Who Which
That
Note: These words also sometimes introduce noun clauses.
• Essential adjective clauses do not use a comma, because if removing them could alter the main idea.
43
Gina Caldarello is the woman who is responsible for the accident. • Nonessential adjective clauses can be removed from sentence
without significantly changing the meaning, so the commas are set off whether they appear in the middle of the main clause or at the
end. As in the following example:
44
Tara Farnsworth, who is an exceptional student, is a fine athlete. I stayed out too late last night, which caused me to oversleep my 8:00
class. c
Adverb Clauses Adverb clauses function like single adverbs and adverb phrases,
describing verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. They give additional information about a main clause, telling when, why, where, how, and to
what extent, as in the following example: • When the carolers came to our house, we served them hot chocolate.
when • Because it began to rain, the party headed indoors. Why
• Where Amanda and her friends go, trouble is sure to follow. where • As if he had not eaten for week, Brad wolfed down his hamburger.
how • Until he could stand it no more, Max listened to the meaningless
lecture. extent Adverb clauses, like other adverbs, are flexible parts of sentences and
can frequently be moved. For example: the subordinate and main clauses in any of the above examples could be reversed easily, like this:
We serve them hot chocolate, when the carolers came to our house. Clauses beginning with though, although and even though usually do use
a comma even when they follow a main clause because these subordinating words announce strong contrast.
45
43
Ibid.
44
Ibid.
45
Ibid, p 500
Adverb clauses always begin with a subordinating conjunction. Here is a list of common subordinating words:
Table III Common Subordinating Words for Adverb Clauses
Coordinating conjunctions
After As though
In order that So that Whenever
Although Because
Now that Though Where
As Before
Once Till
Whereas As if
Even though Rather than
Until Wherever
As long as If Since
When While
Note: some of these words can also introduce prepositional phrases, noun clauses, and adjective clauses.
According to Willis 1964, complex sentences are sentences with various kinds of sentence modifiers: appositive-phrases, adjective clauses,
adverbial clauses, verb clusters, prepositional-phrase modifiers, and adjective clusters.
46
1 The Pattern of Sentences with Appositive Phrases.
One simple method of expanding a subject-predicate construction into a more complex sentence, and thus avoiding the composition of a second,
unnecessary sentence, is the use of appositive phrase. An appositive is
usually a noun phrase that makes a full, separate statement about some other noun in the sentence.
47
Here are some examples that show how separate full statements can be converted into appositives:
Ecology is the study of the mutual relation between organisms and their environment. It is required for a degree in forestry.
Ecology, the study of the mutual relation between organisms and their environment, is required for a degree in forestry.
My Uncle Bert was a golf instructor. My Uncle Bert moved here from New Mexico in 1959.
My Uncle, a golf instructor, moved here from New Mexico in 1959. Joe was the mailman. Joe said hello.
Joe, the mailman, said hello.
46
Hullon Willis, Structure, Style, and Usage, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1964, p.152
47
Ibid, p139
Tartuffe is Moliere’s best known play. It is about a religious hypocrite who tries to make love to his patron’s wife.
Tartuffe, Moliere’s best known play, is about a religious hypocrite who tries to make love to his patron’s wife.
The nation’s mightiest “affair of honor” is, of course, the Civil War. It accounts for an average of ten romantic novels a year.
The nation’s mightiest “affair of honor” –the Civil War, of course— accounts for an average of ten romantic novels a year.
The man is the laboratory director. The man is wearing the green uniform.
The man, the laboratory director, is wearing the green uniform. The logic of appositive phrase is that of identification or definition—that is,
the appositive identifies or defines a noun by making a direct statement about what the noun is. Thus the verb is are or was were will always fit
between an appositive and the noun it is in apposition to.
48
An appositive usually comes after the noun it is in apposition to and is usually separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. An appositive
may be separated by dashes when it is long or when there is a sharp break between it and the rest of the sentence.
49
Sometimes the appositive construction is in apposition to an entire sentence rather than to just one noun. In such cases, it comes at the end of a sentence
and makes a statement about the whole idea of the sentence,
50
e.g. He was known to have supported the subversive committee for
Democratic Principles. This fact hurt his political career. He was known to have supported the subversive committee for
Democratic Principles, a fact hurt his political career. 2
The Pattern of Sentences with Adjective-Clause Modifiers.
The adjective clause is one of three types of constructions called
dependent or subordinate clauses in traditional grammar. It is called dependent or subordinate because, although it contains a subject and
predicate, it is incorporated within another sentence and is connected to dependent on some word or words in the main sentence.
51
48
Ibid.
49
Ibid, p.140
50
Ibid.
51
Ibid, p.141
An adjective clause is a subordinated construction rather than a simple sentence because it begins with a word usually who, which, that, whom, or
whose that keeps it from being a self-contained sentence. These words may be called relative pronouns or subordinators.
52
The logic of the adjective clause is somewhat like that of the appositive in that it makes a statement of identification, definition, or description about
a noun or about the whole idea of a sentence,
53
e.g. The President proposed a compromise. It would have perpetuated the
unsettled condition. The President proposed a compromise that would have perpetuated the
unsettled condition. The president was a certain kind of politician. This was the kind whose
sense of compromise never deserted him. The president was a certain kind of politician whose sense of
compromise never deserted him. Like the appositive construction, the adjective clause can modify the whole
idea of a sentence as well as a single noun in it,
54
e.g. The mayor wanted to employ additional policemen. This seemed like a
good idea. The mayor wanted to employ additional policemen which seemed like a
good idea. Sometimes an adjective clause is separated from the rest of the sentence by
commas, and sometimes it is not. When the clause is necessary to identify the noun it modifies, it is not separated by commas,
55
e.g. The player maintains the highest batting average. The player will
receive a trophy. The player who maintains the highest batting average will receive a
trophy.
52
Ibid.
53
Ibid.
54
Ibid, p.142
55
Ibid, p.143
When an adjective clause modifies a noun already fully identified, it is set off from the rest of the sentence with commas,
56
Sinclair Lewis’ novel Babbitt satirized American materialism. Sinclair Lewis’ novel Babbitt won him the Nobel Prize for Literature.
Sinclair Lewis’ novel Babbitt, which satirized American materialism, won him the Nobel Prize for Literature.
When an adjective clause is not set off by commas, it is called restrictive or essential clause, because it is needed to identify its noun. When such a
clause is set off by commas, it is called nonrestrictive or nonessential, because it is not needed to identify its noun.
57
3 The Pattern of Sentences with Adverbial-Clause Modifiers.
The adverbial clause is another of the dependent clauses of traditional grammar. Such clauses are frequently said to—and in some cases do—
modify the verb in the main sentence. But more often, adverbial clauses seem to modify the whole sentence rather just the verb. Sometimes they are
called sentence modifiers rather than adverbial clauses.
58
Like the adjective clause, the adverbial clause is introduced by a word when, if, because, though, and so on that keeps it from standing by itself as
a simple sentence. This word incorporates the clause into the main sentence, making the clause subordinate or dependent in much the same way that
words like who and that make adjective clauses dependent. There are many of these words and they express various kinds of logic. As a group they may
be called subordinating conjunctions or subordinators.
59
Several of these subordinators express the logic of cause-and-result: because, since, in that, now that, in order that, and in as much as
60
, e.g. He couldn’t go on. He was just too tired.
He couldn’t go on, because he was just too tired. He did it. He needed the money.
Because he needed the money, he did it Some of the subordinators express the logic of contrast: although, though,
whereas, and sometimes while
61
, e.g.
56
Ibid, p. 143
57
Ibid.
58
Ibid, p.144
59
Ibid, pp.144-145
60
Ibid, p. 145
His grandfather is sixty years old. He has white hair all over his head. He is still very healthy.
Although his grandfather who has white hair all over his head is sixty years old, he is still very healthy.
Rommie fell off his bicycle. He hurt himself. He did not cry. Though Rommie fell off his bicycle till hurt himself, he did not cry.
Mr. Amin Rais lost the national election. He remained the leader of his own party.
Though Mr. Amin Rais lost the national election, he remained the leader of his own party.
The logic of condition is expressed by the subordinators if and unless, If sewer bonds are not voted for the West Knolls District, real estate
sales will continue to be slow there. Real estate sales will continue to be slow in the West Knolls District
unless sewer bonds are voted in. In each of these cases the truth of one statement depends on is conditional
on the truth of the other.
62
The logic of manner or method is expressed by the subordinators as, as……as, as if, and as though, e.g.
She acted as if nothing happened before. The Teamster’s President used his powers as extensively as the law
would allow. In each of these cases the subordinator tells how something was done.
63
The logic of a time relationship expressed by the subordinators after, as, as soon as, before, since, until, when, and while. Also the logic of cause-and-
result is sometimes combined with the time relationship,
64
61
Ibid.
62
Ibid, p.146
63
Ibid.
The President saw that his bill was in danger of being defeated. The President quickly called conferences with his Senate leaders.
When the President saw that his bill was in danger of being defeated, he quickly called conferences with his Senate leaders.
Though in these examples when, before, and after seem to express only a time relationship between the two statements, the reader understands in each
case that the second statement is the result of the first. No simple rule can be stated governing the punctuation of all adverbial
clauses. However, when the clause comes first in a sentence, it is usually separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma unless it is short.
65
4 The Pattern of Sentences with Verb-Cluster Modifiers.
A cluster is one kind of phrase, and a phrase is a group of words without a subject and predicate, which form a clause acting as a unit. In the kind of
phrase called a cluster there is always a headword—the dominant word of the phrase about which other words cluster. In a verb cluster the headword is
a verb—any form of a verb: to explain, explained, to be explained, explaining, had explained, had been explained, had been explaining, having
explaining, having explained, having been explained, being explained. A verb cluster is formed when modifiers or objects or both are joined to such
verbs or verb phrases to form a unit.
66
Though it has various functions, a verb cluster can act as a sentence modifier or as the modifier of a noun within a main sentence. Because the
cluster usually appears to modify a specific noun, it is often called an adjective phrase or an adjectival
67
, e.g. The lawyer chose his words carefully. He was trying hard to control his
temper. The lawyer chose his words carefully, trying hard to control his
temper. The 39
th
Regiment fought savagely. It broke out of the German trap.
64
Ibid
65
Ibid, pp. 146-147
66
Ibid, p.148
67
Ibid.
The 39
th
Regimen, fighting savagely, broke out of the German trap. The car was towed by a truck. It was taken to a garage for repair.
The car, towed by a truck, was taken to a garage for repair. Most sentence pattern with the verb-cluster modifiers express a logic of
cause-and-result.
68
5 The Pattern of Sentences with Prepositional-Phrase Modifiers.
Prepositional phrases often combine with modifiers to form large elements that can act as sentence modifiers
69
, e.g. Mr. Smith was in a state of shock over the accidental death of his wife.
He entered the hospital for a rest and complete check-up. In a state of shock over the accidental death of his wife, Mr. Smith
entered the hospital for a rest and complete check-up. 6
The Pattern of Sentences with Adjective-Cluster Modifiers. An adjective cluster in the new grammar is the same as an adjective phrase
in the old: an adjective headword with its modifiers
70
, e.g. Mary was intensely happy with her new kitchen. She delighted her
husband with various culinary experiments. Intensely happy with her new kitchen, Mary delighted her husband with
various culinary experiments.
d. Compound-Complex Sentences