process “through which individuals, organizations and societies obtain, strengthen and maintain the capabilities to set and achieve their own development objectives
over time”UNDP, 2009. According to the UNDP, capacity development is more than communities receiving technical assistance, skills and knowledge and is
concerned with values and mindsets being changed over the long term. Whatever terminology is used, increasing capacity in coastal communities is a major priority
for most CBRM programs but capacity and institution building can take years. A case study of Orion in the Philippines shows that the process of community
organizing, capacity development, establishing community based management, implementing community based management and developing non-fishing
livelihood alternatives took 10 years, which is consistent with studies in St. Lucia and Bangladesh Berkes et al., 2001.
Raakjaer Nielsen et al. 2004 and White and Courteney 2002 add the caveat that some of the issues facing fishing communities are local e.g. bombing
of reef habitats and lack of infrastructure and some global e.g. predatory foreign vessels, decline of migratory stocks and global warming. Co-management needs
to be wider than the local scale to tackle global problems.
2.2.3 Co-management in Indonesia
Decentralisation coupled with co-management are important concepts identified by Indonesian authors. In his overview of small-scale fisheries
management in Indonesia, Nikijuluw 2002 outlined the main challenges facing small scale-fishers as destructive fishing methods, incursion of larger vessels into
traditional fishing grounds, poverty and lack of management. The two policy changes that have been identified by the Indonesian government, in response to
these challenges, are a change in focus from increasing production and exports to improving welfare and decentralisation of management. Satria and Matsuda
2004 describe this process of decentralisation and use a case study from Lombok to show that the powers and jurisdiction of national and regional institutions are
still unclear. Their recommendations are for a a clear legal framework, b local government to have the human resource capacity to manage locally and c
revitalisation of local institutions. Ruddle 1994, Berkes et al. 2001 and Raakjaer Nielsen et al. 2004 all agree that a crucial role of the government, and
one that only they can fulfil, is the provision of a strong legal basis and legitimacy for the institutions that will control and manage the resource. Pomeroy’s 1995
analysis of community based institutions in SE Asia argues for the need for government policy that provides an authority framework and legal rights for co-
management but he also recognises that revitalisation of institutions will in many areas, actually mean creating new ones.
In Indonesia CBRM has in certain locations existed for centuries. Siregar 2002 describes how CBRM in the province of Aceh has existed since the 16
th
Century with the Panglima Laut Sea Commanders acting to this day as mediators between the government and local community to ensure that
development programs succeed. Currently their specific responsibilities involve establishing and monitoring rules, customary laws and sea customs; resolving
conflict between fishers and others, and protecting mangrove trees in the coastal areas. Siregar 2002 reports that the Sea Commander system is an effective form
of government because it strengthens community participation. Also since the 16
th
Century in the province of Maluku, sasi laut is a set of regulations that govern resource extraction. It prohibits the use of destructive fishing techniques as well as
defining closed areas and seasons. These regulations are guarded and enforced by a local management group called a kewang Nikijuluw, 1995. Elsewhere in
Indonesia awig-awig has been used in Bali and Lombok as a way of locally managing resources. Satria and Matsuda 2004 describe how the monetary crisis
and national reform of 1998 allowed local fishers to re-establish awig-awig to control destructive practices and protect traditional fishing and cultural practices.
Although conflict between tourism and fisheries remains, awig-awig has stopped destructive fishing practices. It is effective because of the stewardship that
resource users feel now they are participating in the planning and management of the marine environment. This model of revitalizing community institutions and
forms of coastal management is a key part of effective decentralization that empowers local stakeholders to take decisions. Despite these case studies of local
management, both an appropriate legal framework and co-ordination of national and local institutions in the Indonesian context is still lacking Pomeroy, 1995;
Satria and Matsuda, 2004 and the Indonesian implementation of ICM lags behind that of the Philippines both nationally and locally Christie et al., 2005.
2.2.4 Reviews of Coastal CBRM Programs and Projects
