1. Determining the sequence of presentation of target item in text book and
classroom, with the difficult item following the easier one; 2.
Deciding the relatives degree of emphasis, explanation and practice require and putting across various items in the target language;
3. Devising remedial lesson and exercise;
4. Selecting items for testing the learners’ proficiency.
Shows that there are four goals of error analysis.
C. Grammar
1. Understanding of grammar
Penny Ur notes that ―Grammar is defined as words are put together to make correct sentences it does not only affect how the units of words are
combined in order to make correct sentences but also affects their meaning.‖
31
According to Thornburry ―Grammar is partly the study of what forms or structure are possible in language. Traditionally, grammar has been
concerned almost exclusively with analysis at the level of the sentence formed rules that govern how a language’s sentences are formed.‖
32
In conclusion, grammar is a field of linguistic that involves all the various things that make
up the rules of language.
2. Types of Grammar
Grammar may be separated into two common broad categories: descriptive and prescriptive. Both views of grammar are in wide use, although
in general, linguists tend towards a descriptive approach to grammar, while people are teaching a specific language; English, might tend towards a more
perspective approach.
33
31
Penny Ur, A Course in Language Teaching Practice and Theory, London: Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 75
32
Scott Thornburry, How to Teach Grammar, London: Longman, 1999, p. 1.
33
http:www.answers.comtopicgrammar, 24 September 2014.
David Crystal lists six types of grammar: descriptive grammar, pedagogical grammar, perspective grammar, reference grammar, theoretical
grammar, and traditional grammar.
34
Kathryn Riley and Frank Parker state that there are four types of grammar; perspective grammar is primarily interested in constructing rules of
usage for the prestige variety of a language, descriptive grammar is primarily interested in describing the basic sentence patterns of all varieties of a
language. Then, generative grammar is primarily interested in discovering those principles of sentence formation that are part of the human biological
endowment; performance grammar is primarily interested in the effects of context and real-time limitations on language use.
35
In the writer’s opinion, grammar can be divided into two main points; descriptive and perspective grammar that can be broken down again into
many different points with different point of views.
D. REPORTED SPEECH
1. The Definition of Reported Speech
Reported speech refers to reproducing the idea of anoher person’s words. Not all of the exact words are used: verb forms and pronoun may
change.
36
Thompson and Martinet stated in A Practical English Grammar , ―in
indirect speech we give the exact meaning of a remark or a speech, without necessarily using the speaker’s exact words.‖
37
Betty schrampfer azar stated in Understanding English Grammar, ―reported speech refers to using a noun clause to report what someone has
said. ‖
38
34
http:www.IIp.armstrong.edu5800types.html. 24 September 2014.
35
Kathryn Riley and Frank Parker, English Grammar: Perspective, Descriptive, Generative, Performance, Boston: A Pearson Education Company, 1998, p. 3.
36
Betty Schrampfer Azar, Fundamentals of English Grammar, London: Practice Hall, 1992, 2
nd
edition, p. 366
37
Thompson, A PracticalEnglish Grammar, p. 269.
Reported speech also called indirect speech is used to communicate what someone else said, but without using exact words.
From some definitions above, it can be concluded that reported speech is to qoute somebody’s idea or thoughts without exactly repeating the exact
word produced by the speaker.
2. The kinds of Speech
There are two ways of realiting what a person has said: direct and indirect.
39
a. Direct Speech
Direct speech conveys exactly what someone has said.
40
It is usually found in conversations in book, in plays, and in quotations.
41
Example: She said, ―I want to go the market.‖
Quotation marks are used when we quote direct speech. Single quotatin marks ―...‖ are more common in British English, and double
qoutation marks ―...‖ in American English.
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In direct speech, usually the words qoute introduced by one the words say or think. It is put before the quotation. In writing, quotation marks ―...‖ or
―...‖ are used. In litetary writing, a large number of other verbs are used to
add variety and to give additional information; for example, ask, suggest, recommend, remind, etc.
b. Indirect speech
It can be made a speaker’s words or thoughts part of his sentence using conjunction e.g. that, and changing pronouns, tenses and other words where
38
Betty Schrampfer Azar, Fundamentals of English Grammar Edisi Inggris- IndonesiaJakarta: Binarupa Aksara, 1993, 2
nd
edition, p. 275
39
Thompson, PracticalEnglish Grammar, p. 269
40
Martin Parrot, Grammar For English Language Teachers, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 217
41
Thompson, loc. Cit.
42
Micheal Swam, Practical English Usage, Oxford: Oxford University Press,1995, p. 471
