CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In this chapter, the researcher will discuss related theories that are used in conducting the research. This chapter will be divided into two sub-chapters, which
are theoretical description and theoretical framework.
2.1 Theoretical Description
This section provides the related theories used in this research. The theories used are Instructional Design, Task-Based Learning, Writing, and Movie.
2.1.1 Instructional Design
Instructional design is a systematic process for designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating instruction Dick Reiser, 1989, p. 3. The
instructional design method that is used in this research is Kemp’s instructional design model that has been modified by Morrison, Ross, Kalman and Kemp in
2011. According to Morrison, Ross, Kalman, and Kemp 2011 the purpose of instructional design is to make learning more “efficient, effective and less
difficult” p. 2. Therefore, Morrison, et al 2011 maintain the four fundamental components in instructional design which form the framework for systematic
instructional planning. The components can be represented by these questions: 1 for whom is the program developed? Characteristics of learners; 2 what do you
want the learners or trainee to learn or demonstrate? Objectives; 3 how is the subject content or skill best learned? Instructional strategies; and 4 How do
you determine the extent to which learning is achieved? Evaluation procedures p. 14.
Further, those four basic components will be analyzed using nine steps of instructional design planning proposed by Morrisson, et al 2011, which are:
2.1.1.1 Identify the Instructional Problems
The first step of instructional design process is identifying the learner needs or problems. This is the initial process which aimed to determine whether
instruction should be a part of the solution. If the problems or needs seek an instruction as the solution, then the researcher may continue doing the project.
However, if the needs seek a non-instructional solution, then the designer may apply the non-instructional intervention or find the most appropriate solution
Morrison et al 2011, p. 15. In order to identify the instructional problems, there are three different approaches that can be used by the researcher. They are, needs
assessment, goal analysis, and performance assessment 2011, p. 31. The researcher has to carefully identify the needs and problems since this research is
focused on designing the instructional model.
2.1.1.2 Analyze the Learner and Context
The second step is analyzing the learner characteristics and context. Analyzing learner characteristics is important since the result is used as one of the
basis in making an appropriate instructional design. In analyzing the learners, Heinich, Molenda, and Smaldino, as cited in Morrison et al 2011, suggested the
three categories of learner traits, which are general characteristics gender, age, PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
ethnicity, specific entry characteristics prerequisite skills for the instruction, and learning styles preferred ways of learning. Connected to the learner analysis is
contextual analysis, which provides information about environmental factors that will affect the design and deliver the instruction p. 70.
2.1.1.3 Conduct the Task Analysis
After analyzing the learner characteristics and context, the next step is analyzing the task. The process of task analysis is to define the subject content,
and analyze task components related to stated goals and purposes. As stated by Morrison, et al
2011, “Task analysis is probably the most critical step in the instruc
tional design process” p. 78. The appropriate content in the instruction can help the learners to master the objectives. In order to conduct the task analysis
the researcher can use three techniques. They are: topic analysis, which describe how to define a cognitive knowledge, procedural analysis that include a series of
steps to do the task analysis and critical incident method which is for analyzing interpersonal skill p. 79.
2.1.1.4 Specify the Instructional Objectives
According to Morrison, et al 2011, “the specification of instructional
objectives plays a key role in the procedure for systematically planning instruction” p. 128. The instructional objective gives a clear guidance for
choosing and organizing instructional activities and resources that best facilitate the effective learning. In the process of instructional design, the objectives are
taken from the result of task analysis and represent the major task, knowledge, and PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
attitudes defined by the analysis. Further, the objectives are used as the starting point to select the instructional strategies.
2.1.1.5 Manage the Content Sequence
This step focuses on presenting content in the most appropriate sequence related to the objectives. Having an appropriate order of content sequence can
help learners grasp the ideas and information in more efficient and effective way p. 15, 136.
2.1.1.6 Select the Instructional Strategies
The instructional strategy provides the designer to develop the sequence instructional contents that are specified in the previous step. In this step, the
designer focuses on how to present each objective in a way that will help learners achieve the objectives.
2.1.1.7 Design the Message
The message in this step refers to the pattern of words and pictures that is used to present the information to the learner. The designer has to pay attention in
selecting the appropriate graphics, text, and style in presenting the content since it can enhance the learners’ understanding of the instruction.
2.1.1.8 Develop the Instruction
After completing the analysis and design, the instructional designer is ready to develop the instruction. In this process the designer puts all the design
parts together to produce the instructional material. It can be in form of video recordings, web pages, printed materials or audiotapes. During the development
process, the researcher should focus on the problem and objectives to ensure the instruction supports the resolution of the problem p. 234
2.1.1.9 Evaluate the Instruments
The last step of this instructional model is evaluating the instruments. This is an essential step that should be done by the designer to measure the learners’
mastery of the objectives. It can be done in some ways, such as, multiple choice, test items, or portfolio collection.
The nine steps of Kemp’s Instructional Model in Morrison, et.al 2011 are presented in an oval shape to indicate that there is no rule of sequence or order in
applying the steps. The instructional designer can begin and finish the steps from anywhere based on the needs of the user of the instructional materials. The
instructional design plan that is proposed by Kemp is drawn as the following
figure:
Figure 2.1. The components of Instructional Design suggested by Morrison, Ross, Kalman Kemp 2011, p. 12
2.1.2 Task-based Learning
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