Teaching Writing LITERATURE REVIEW

4. Writing as a skill Writing is one of the four skills that must be mastered by students of language. Students need to know how to write letters, how to put written reports together, how to replay advertisements, etc. they need to know some of writing‟s special conventions punctuation, paragraph constructions, spelling, etc. Based on the explanation about writing, writing is classified as a hard subject. The teacher should have known about the problems in writing that are faced by the students. She or he must have an appropriate way to overcome their problems in writing process. Brown 1987: 7 states that teaching is showing or helping someone how to learn and how to do something providing with knowledge, causing to know or to understand. It means, when the teacher built students‟ self confidence and encourage them to express their idea, thought, and feeling in the form of written language, teaching writing will be effective. Harmer 2001 sates that there are a number of strategies to encourage students to write, as follows: 1. The way of the teacher gets the students to plan. This stage explains about the way of the teacher encourages the students to think about what they are going to write, what they are going to say, what the purpose of their writing is, and who the audience is. 2. The way of the teacher encourages the students to draft, reflect, and revise. This stage consists of the way of the teacher gives the explanation to the students that their first writing is not finished product. 3. The way of the teacher responds to the students‟ writing. The teacher reads the students‟ writing and gives suggestion or correction to their writing. It is known as reformulation. Corre ction and revision on the students‟ writing will help them to improve their writing into well-organized product. Gardner and Johnson 1997 describe the process approach of writing: Writing is a fluid process created by writers as they work. Accomplished writers move back and forth between the stages of the process, both consciously and unconsciously. Young writers, however, benefit from the structure and security of following the writing process in their writing. o Prewriting. Students generate ideas for writing: brainstorming; reading literature; creating life maps, webs, and story charts; developing word banks; deciding on form, audience, voice, and purpose as well as through teacher motivation. o Rough Draft. Students get their ideas on paper. They write without concern for conventions. Written work does not have to be neat; it is a sloppy copy. o Reread. Students proof their own work by reading aloud and reading for sensibility. o Share with a Peer Revisor. Students share and make suggestions for improvement: asking who, what, when, where, why, and how questions about parts of the story the peer does not understand; looking for better words; and talking about how to make the work better. o Revise. Improve what the narrative says and how it says it: write additions, imagery, and details. Take out unnecessary work. Use peer suggestions to improve. Clarify. o Editing. Work together on editing for mechanics and spelling. Make sure the work is goof proof. o Final Draft. Students produce their final copy to discuss with the teacher and write a final draft. o Publishing. Students publish their written pieces: sending their work to publishers; reading their finished story aloud, making books. In actuality, the writing process is not a highly organized linear process, but rather a continual movement between the different steps of the writing model. Raimes in Reid 1993: 27 states teaching writing is a unique way to reinforce learning. It means teaching writing is very important to build the students‟ language ability. Besides, giving feedback is also important things in procedures of writing. It can reinforce the students to be better in writing. From the reason and the explanation above, it can be inferred that teaching writing is a way to develop the students‟ writing ability that is essential and useful to be taught to the students to enhance their language mastery, to test their ability in producing certain kind of genre, and to develop their critical thinking. It is also stated in the curriculum in Indonesia that writing is one of standard competencies that should be taught to the students in all level of education.

2.3. Teaching Materials

Teaching materials are the resources a teacher uses to deliver instruction. Each teacher requires a range of tools to draw upon in order to assist and support student learning. These materials play a large role in making knowledge accessible to a learner and can encourage a student to engage with knowledge in different ways. In the field of education, teaching materials is a commonly used acronym that stands for teachinglearning materials. Broadly, the term refers to a spectrum of educational materials that teachers use in the classroom to support specific learning objectives, as set out in lesson plans. A number of learning materials focussing on textbooks and teachers‟ books were implemented Brumfit, 1980. The materials were purposely based on underlying principles that were very different from those already present in the prevailing education system, in order to encourage change. Teaching materials include handouts, unit outlines, websites, textbooks, visual aids, lecture recordings and any materials which you provide to the students to help them learn. Teaching material is a generic term used to describe the resources teachers use to deliver instruction. Teaching materials can support the teaching and it can increase student s‟ success. Ideally, the teaching materials will be tailored to the content in which theyre being used, to the students in whose class they are being used, and the teacher. Teaching materials come in many shapes and sizes, but they all have in common the ability to support student teaching. Teaching materials can refer to a number of teacher resources; however, the term usually refers to concrete examples, such as worksheets or manipulatives learning tools or games that students can handle to help them gain and practice facility with new knowledge. Teaching materials are different from teaching “resources”, the latter including more theoretical and intangible elements, such as essays or support from other educators, or places to find teaching materials. Teaching materials are important because they can significantly increase student achievement by supporting student learning. For example, a worksheet may provide a student with important opportunities to practice a new skill gained in class. This process aids in the learning process by allowing the student to explore the knowledge independently as well as providing repetition. Learning materials, regardless of what kind, all have some function in student learning. Teaching materials can also add important structure to lesson planning and the delivery of instruction. Particularly in lower grades, teaching materials act as a guide for both the teacher and student. They can provide a valuable routine. For instance, if you are a language arts teacher and you teach new vocabulary words every day, knowing that you have a vocabulary game to provide the students with practice regarding the new words will both take pressure off of you and provide important practice and fun for your students. In addition to supporting learning more generally, learning materials can assist teachers in an important professional duty: the differentiation of instruction. Differentiation of instruction is the tailoring of lessons and instruction to the different learning styles and capacities within your classroom. Learning materials such as worksheets, group activity instructions, games, or homework assignments all allow you to modify assignments to best activate each individual students learning style. In this case, teaching materials is essential for quality of the materials to be made available to the teachers and students in adequate quantities to support the teaching and learning processes.

2.4. Process of Teaching

Teaching is to instruct or train someone, or the profession of someone who teaches. Someone means an instructor who teach for the purposes of the handbook in a class or course . Defining a “good instructor” has proven more elusive, but in The Essence of Good Teaching 1985, psychologist Ericksen wrote “good teachers select and organize worthwhile course material, lead students to encode and integrate this material in memorable form, ensure competence in the procedures and methods of a discipline, sustain intellectual curiosity, and promote how to learn independently.” Driscoll 2005: 23 defines instruc tion as “any deliberate arrangement of events to facilitate a learner‟s acquisition of some goal”, and in so doing she shows why there have been no teaching theories since the very beginning of education as a formal process. According to Driscoll‟s definition of teaching, most of the learners do implication of the instruction depends on the learning theory. The learning process is not easily separated into a definite number of steps. Sometimes, learning occurs almost instantaneously, and other times it is acquired only through long, patient study and diligent practice. The teaching process, on the other hand, can be divided into steps. Although there is disagreement as to the number of steps, examination of the various lists of steps in the teaching process reveals that different authors are saying essentially the same thing: the teaching of new material can be reduced to preparation, presentation, application, and review and evaluation. o Preparation For each lesson or instructional period, the instructor must prepare a lesson plan. Traditionally, this plan includes a statement of lesson objectives, the procedures and facilities to be used during the lesson, the specific goals to be attained, and the means to be used for review and evaluation. The instructor should make certain that all necessary supplies, materials, and equipment needed for the lesson are readily available and that the equipment is operating properly. Preparation of the lesson plan may be accomplished after reference to the syllabus or practical test standards PTS. The instructor can organize the overall instructional plan by writing down the objectives and making certain that they flow in a logical sequence from beginning to end. One good way to write lesson plans is to begin by formulating performance-based objectives. Performance-based objectives consist of three parts: description of the skill or behavior, conditions, and criteria. The description of the skill or behavior explains the desired outcome of the instruction. It actually is a learned capability, which may be defined as knowledge, a skill, or an attitude. Conditions are necessary to specifically explain the rules under which the skill or