3.13 Zero anaphora in discourse
Once a referent has been activated, a zero reference is used until a new referent is activated, or there is some other discontinuity in the text. The use of a zero
reference signals to the hearer that the referent is active. An example of this is seen in 100, where the orphans aunt is the active participant at this point in
the narrative. In Orphan.016 she is referred to using the noun maʔˈkɨn aunt. She remains the active referent, and this is signalled by subsequent null references to
her in Orphan.017 and Orphan.018.
100Orphan.016 mɨɑ
when liɑŋ
raise jɔh
DUR liɑŋ
raise ɡɑɑj
DUR mɑʔkɨn
aunt ɡɔʔ
so_then ləəj
directly srˈʔɔh
hate ɡəə
3sgm niʔ
this
While raising him as time went on, the aunt began to hate him. Orphan.017
Ø aunt
srˈʔɔh hate
ɡəə 3sgm
niʔ this
Ø aunt
sɑj use
ɡəə 3sgm
tɛɛŋ do
wiɑk work
Ø aunt
sɑj use
ɡəə 3sgm
jɔh go
kʰii here
jɔh go
nɑɑj there
lɛʔ and
Ø aunt
ʔɑm NEG
ʔɑn allow
ɡəə 3sgm
bəʔ eat
mɑh rice
Hating him, she used him to work, used him to go here and go there, and did not allow him to eat rice.
Orphan.018 ʔɑn
COND ɡəə
3sgm bəʔ
eat Ø
aunt ɡɔʔ
so_then ʔɑn
allow ɡəə
3sgm bəʔ
eat dɛk
a_little Ø
aunt ʔɑm
NEG ʔɑn
allow
ɡəə 3sgm
bəʔ eat
mɑɑk many
If he ate, then she allowed him to eat a little; she didnt allow him to eat much.
3.14 Summary
An inventory of Kmhmu referring expressions and a summary of their functions in discourse is given in Table 12.
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Table 12: Inventory and Functions of Kmhmu Referring Expressions
Referring expression occurrences in study
Discourse function
NPs with nonrestrictive attributive modifiers
56 introduce unidentifiable referents
signal salience by amount of encoding signal role of referent in narrative by content of modifiers
NPs with restrictive attributive modifiers
72 identify accessible referents using unique attributes or
events
possessive phrases 127
possessive phrases with deʔ 8
anchor unidentifiable referents individuatespecify unidentifiable referents
locate identifiable referents in the discourse world focus attention on the possesesor
NPs with classifier phrases 37
signal specificity of a referent introduce an unidentifiable, thematically salient referent
NPs with determiners 238
point to referents in the discourse world point to referents in the speech situation
point to previous segments of text signal identifiable referents
disambiguate accessible referents signal thematic salience of referents
identify inactive referents
Proper nouns 57
introduce unidentifiable referents disambiguate identifiable referents
anchor unidentifiable referents act as terms of address
Kin terms 131
signal non-major participants communicate cultural information
act as terms of address anchor unidentifiable referents
re-activate accessible referents highlight the relationship between 2 referents
Pronouns 433
introduce unidentifiable referents through deixis signal backgrounding of an agent when the patient or
event is in focus mitigate emotive force through generic reference
disambiguate male and female participants
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Referring expression occurrences in study
Discourse function
reiterate participant identity at text discontinuities signal co-referentiality
highlight a participant through emphasis signal backgrounded events
Pronominal constructions
•
appositional pronoun phrases and pronoun
phrases with classifiers 4
•
pronoun phrases with determiners
8 reiterate participant identity at text discontinuities
disambiguate accessible referents
signal re-activation of an accessible referent signal an identifiable, thematically salient referent
Classifier phrases 95
refer to and quantify identifiable referents mark text boundaries
Demonstratives 34
point to referents in speech setting signal identifiable, thematically salient referents
point to previous segments of text
Sɨŋ constructions 11
add descriptive or explanatory information about referents
refer to events accessible from the text
Zero anaphora 341
signals an active referent
The amount and type of linguistic encoding in a referring expression reflects both the mental effort required by the hearer to identify a referent, and the
thematic salience of that referent. In the Kmhmu inventory of referring expressions, the speaker is equipped with a wide range of options to clearly
signal the identifiability, activation status and thematic salience of referents in narrative discourse.
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Chapter 4 Participant Identification Patterns
Having identified the Kmhmu inventory of referring expressions and characterised their various functions in discourse in Chapter 3, this chapter
explores the patterns of use of these referring expressions in participant identification in narrative text. The participant identification system of a
language consists of the rules and patterns of reference and identification that enable the hearer to know who is doing or experiencing what Callow 1974:30.
This system provides for introduction and tracking of participants, signalling participant rank, resolving ambiguities, and maintaining cohesion across
discontinuity boundaries.
A description of the ranking system and methods of introduction for participants is given, followed by the proposed default patterns for reference throughout a
Kmhmu narrative. Exceptions to these patterns are discussed, with suggested motivations for deviations from the default patterns. By way of introduction to
this analysis, a literature review of some theoretical approaches to examining participant identification systems is presented, followed by a description of the
methodology used in this study.
4.1 Theoretical approach to participant identification analysis
According to Dooley and Levinsohn 2001 participant reference systems need to fulfil semantic, discourse-pragmatic, and processing functions. Semantically,
they must identify referents clearly, disambiguating them from other plausible referents. The greater the risk of ambiguity, the greater the amount of coding
material used in a referring expression.
The discourse-pragmatic functions have been discussed more fully in section 3.1.2 Identifiability, activation status and thematic salience, and are summarised
here. The patterns of participant identification reflect whether the participant is identifiable to the hearer or is a brand new participant. If a participant is