The Comparison between American Idioms and British Idioms

15 The salient characteristic of habitual collocations is that all the items there show variance, restricted as in I: explode a myth, etc., or relatively unrestricted as in IV: beautifullovely, etc. woman. Some of these collocations have one item have a non-literal sub sense as explode „debunk’ a myth or catch „be in time for’ a trainplane, etc. do. Others are literal, for example, addled eggsbrains. The bracketed items in V tend to be omitted and in this respect are more strongly optional than those optional items in the Idioms column IV. A word regarding terminology: An idiom is used as a cover term for the various sub-classes of idioms. An idiom is also used in similarly general way when contrasted with non-idioms. Specific classificatory terms, for example, pure idioms, are used where necessary. 19 The same practice is followed for collocations: the term is used generally, with the type of collocation specified where necessary.

B. The Comparison between American Idioms and British Idioms

American English has some spelling differences from English as used elsewhere. Unlike many 20th century language reforms the American spelling changes were not driven by government, but by textbook writers and dictionary makers. Spelling tendencies in Britain from the 17th century until the present day e.g. -ise for -ize, programme for program, kerb for curb noun, skilful for skillful, chequered for checkered, etc., in some cases favored by the Francophile tastes of 19th century Victorian England, had little effect on American English. 20 20 http:www.google.co.idsearch?q=differences+between+american+and+british+idioms hl=idclient=firefoxarls=org.mozilla:id:officialchannel=sprmd=ivnsei=UAd2TeK1BMnY rQec4py_Cgstart=30sa=N. Accessed on September 15, 2010 16 The first American dictionary was written by Noah Webster in 1828. At the time the United States was a relatively new country and Websters particular contribution was to show that the region spoke a different dialect from Britain, and so he wrote a dictionary with many spellings differing from the standard. Webster also argued for many simplifications to the idiomatic spelling of the period. Many, although not all, of his simplifications fell into common usage alongside the original versions with simple spelling modifications. Some words with simplified spellings in American English include center, color, and maneuver, which are spelled centre, colour, and manoeuvre in other forms of English. In Southern Britain the word whilst is used almost interchangeably with while, To Americans the word whilst, in any context, seems very archaic or pretentious or both. 21 The words amidst as opposed to amid, and amongst as opposed to among, are also rarer in American English. 1. In the UK, generally the term fall meaning autumn is obsolete. 2. In the UK, the term period for a full stop is now obsolete. For example, Tony Blair said Terrorism is wrong, full stop. rather than Terrorism is wrong, period. Normally, Britons “tell the time” and Americans “tell time”. Fifteen minutes after the hour is called quarter past in British usage and a quarter after or, less commonly, a quarter past in American usage. Fifteen minutes before the hour is usually called quarter to in British usage and a quarter of, a quarter 21 Ibid. 17 to or a quarter till in American usage. In informal British speech the preposition is sometimes omitted, so that 5:30 may be referred to as half five. A number of English idioms that have essentially the same meaning show lexical differences between the British and the American version; for instance: 22 Table 2.2 British and American version British English American English Sweep under the carpet sweep under the rug Touch wood knock on wood See the wood for the trees see the forest for the trees Throw a spanner in the works throw a monkey wrench in- the works Tuppence worth two cents worth Skeleton in the cupboard skeleton in the closet A home from home a home away from home Haven’t a clue have no clue Flogging a dead horse beating a dead horse A drop in the ocean a drop in the bucket Idiom is an expression whose meaning is not predictable from the usual meanings of its constituent element as kick the bucket, hang one’s head etc., or from the general grammatical rules of language, as the table round for the round table, and which is not a constituent of a larger expression of like characteristics. This definition seems a bit dry and doesn’t really tell anything about the function of idioms in English language. 23 22 Ibid. 23 http:merikari.wordpress.com20070123idioms-differences-and-usage-in-american- english-and-british-english . Accessed on April 6, 2011. 18 English is a language particularly rich in idioms – those modes of expression peculiar to a language or dialect which frequently defy logical and grammatical rules. Without idioms English would lose much of its variety and humor both in speech and writing. The background and etymological origins of most idioms is at best obscure. 24 This is the reason why a study of differences between the idioms of American and British English is somewhat difficult. But it also makes the cases, where background, etymology and history are known, even more interesting. Some idioms of the “worldwide English” have first been seen in the works of writers like Shakespeare, Sir Walter Scott, and Lewis Carroll or even in the paperbacks of contemporary novelists. An example of Shakespearian quo tation can be found in the following sentence:”As a social worker, you certainly see the seamy side of life.” Biblical references are also the source of many idioms. Sports terms, technical terms, legal terms, military slang and even nautical expressions have found their way to the everyday use of English language. Following are some examples of these, some used in either American or British English and some used in both: 1. “Having won the first two Tests, Australia is now almost certain to retain the Ashes.” Ashes is a British English idiom that is nowadays a well- established cricket term. 24 Ibid. 19 2. “In his case the exception proves the rule.” A legal maxim — in full:”the exception proves the rule in cases not excepted”. Widely used in both American English and British English. 3. “To have the edge onover someone.” This is originally American English idiom, now established in almost every other form of English, including British English. 4. “A happy hunting ground.” Place where one often goes to obtain something or to make money. Originally American English idiom from the Red Indians’ Paradise. In the old days English idioms rarely originated from any other form of English than British English. 25 French was also a popular source of idioms. Nowadays American English is in this position. It is hard to find an American English idiom that has not established itself in “worldwide English” usually British English. This is not the case with British English idioms which are not as widespread. It has to be remembered that it is hard to say which idioms are actively used in English and which are dying out or have already died. Idioms are constantly dying and new-ones are born. Some idioms may have gone through radical changes in meaning. The phrase – There is no love lost between them – nowadays means that some people dislike one another. Originally, when there was only the British English form, it meant exactly the opposite. The shift in meaning is yet unexplained. All dialects of English have different sets of idioms and situations where a given idiom can be used. American English and British English may not, in this respect, be the best 25 Ibid. 20 possible pair to compare because they both have been developing into the same direction, at least where written language is concerned, since the Second World War. The reason that there is so much American influence in British English is the result of the following: a. Magnitude of publishing industry in the U.S. b. Magnitude of mass media influence on a worldwide scale c. Appeal of American popular culture on language and habits worldwide d. International political and economic position of the U.S. All these facts lead to the conclusion that new idioms usually originate in the U.S. and then become popular in so- called “worldwide English”. 26 This new situation is completely different from the birth of American English as a “variant” of British English. When America was still under the rule of the Crown, most idioms originated from British English sources. Of course there were American English expressions and idioms too, before American English could be defined as dialect of English. Some examples of these early American English idioms follow: 1. “To bark up the wrong tree.” Originally from raccoon-hunting in which dogs were used to locate raccoons up in trees. 2. “Paddle one’s own canoe.” This is an American English idiom of the late 18th Century and early 19th Century. Some of these early American idioms and expressions were derived from the speech of the American natives like the phrase that “someone speaks with a forked tongue” and the “happy hunting ground” above. These idioms 26 Ibid. 21 have filtered to British English through centuries through books, newspapers and most recently through powerful mediums like radio, TV and movies. 27 During the War English-speaking nations were united against a common enemy and the U.S. took the leading role. In these few years and a decade after the War American popular culture first established itself in British English. Again new idioms were created and old ones faded away. The Second World War was the turning point in many areas in life. This may also be the case in the development of the English language. In the old days the written language novels, poems, plays and the Bible was the source from which idioms were extracted. This was the case up until WWII. After the war new mediums had established themselves in English- speaking society, there was a channel for the American way of life and the popular culture of the U.S. TV, movies and nowadays the interactive medium have changed the English language more to the American English direction. Some people in the Europe speak the Mid-Atlantic English, halfway from the British English to American English. The influence of American English can even be seen in other European languages. In Finland, we are adopting and translating American English proverbs, idioms and expressions. It can be said that the spoken language has taken the leading role over the written and the only reason for this is TV and radio. Most proverbs and idioms that have been adopted to British English from American English are of spoken origin. This is a definite shift from the days before WWII. How then does differences words contained in the dictionary of American and British in the use of idioms? There are no radical differences in 27 Ibid. 22 actual use. American English is the form of English used in the United States. It includes all English dialects used within the United States of America. On the contrary, British English is the form of English used in the United Kingdom. 28 It includes all English dialects used within the United Kingdom. The main differences are in the situations where idiomatic expressions are used. There have been many studies recently on this subject. American English adopts and creates new idioms at a much faster rate compared to British English. Also the idioms of American English origin tend to spread faster and further. The future of idiomatic expressions in the English language seems certain. They are more and more based on American English. This development will continue through new mediums like the Internet and interactive mediums. It is hard to say what this will do to idioms and what kind of new idioms are created. This will be an interesting development to follow, and by no means does it lessen the humor, variety and color of English language. Idioms are multiword expressions but there are limits of their size. 29 Ad hoc constructions, on the other hand, do not have such limits on size apart from those imposed by contextual appropriateness and memory limitations. Non-Idioms can range from short phrases like very true, rosy cheeks, one morning, etc. to multiple modifying recursive structures for example, In heman America, or In heman, two-fisted, bronco busting, poker-playing, stock juggling America John Dos Passos, USA, or recursive multiple-clause structures such as well this is what I’m saying let’s get back to the morals 28 http:www.diffen.comdifferenceAmerican_English_vs_British_English. Accessed on May 29, 2011 29 Chitra Fernando, op. cit. p.40. 23 BCET, both of which are potentially extendable. The same is true of common locutions like come here or Pleasedo come right here or come right up and straight in here, etc. Idioms do not permit such extensions; they are conventionalized expressions and, if variable, are variable only within definite constrains. The lower limit for idioms is established by the compound. Though not generally included in dictionaries of idioms, compounds show many of the characterizing features of idioms. They are multi word expressions and represent habitual co-occurrences between two or more words e.g. foxglove, overtake, pitter-patterpit-a-pat, happy-go-lucky, devil-may-care. Compounds are classifiable into the parts of speech which categorize the content words of the vocabulary: nouns baby-sitter, adjectives devil-may- care, verbs over-take, and adverbs pitter-patterpit-a-pat. 30 Relational forms like however, moreover, therefore, none the less, nevertheless, etc. though consisting of two or more independent forms are, like complex prepositionse.g. inside, outside, accepted as single words and listed as such in dictionaries. In speech, compounds are identified by distinctive stress patterns which differentiate them from homonymous free constructions, if these exist. Primary stress in compounds always falls on the first part of the compound: si’lver screen film industry’ vs. silver scre’en „a silver-coloured screen’. 31 By this criterion, not only si’lver screen but other expressions like it that are 30 Ibid,p.41. 31 Ibid. 24 orthographically spaced bi’rth control, inco’me tax, etc. are also compounds despite the difference in writing conventions. The presence of the space as opposed to hyphenation or closed juxtaposition reflects different degrees of institutionalization in the recognition of the expression as a compound as opposed to a phrasal sequence. 32 Like larger idioms, compounds can be both literal e.g. mother-in-law, semi-literal e.g. baby-sitter, sickroom, or non- literal e.g. foxglove, eavesdrop, pick-me-up. Some semi-clausal idioms can be transformed into compounds, e.g. lick sb’s boots  boot-licker; break the ice  ice-breaker, etc. If the compound is the recognized lower limit for idioms as far as size goes, the complex clause is the recognized upper one in dictionaries of idioms, and citations by scholars: when the cat is away, the mice will play „uninhibited behavior’; don’t count your chickens before they are hatched „ill-advised optimism’; etc. There are no idioms, whatever their sub-classes that consist of more than two subordinating clauses. In fact longer expressions such as those quoted are often shortened: don’t count your chickens, red herring originally trail a red herring across the path, etc. Short expressions that are easily remembered that are the commonest; what matters is not the number of clauses but the length as is evident in I came, I saw, I conquered, a saying that has acquired the status of an idiom. The most favoured type of construction evident in English idioms, in term of both size and form, going on collections in dictionaries and other works, appear to be verb + particles construction e.g. put up, put up with and the semi clause e.g. spill the beans, smell a rat, etc. 32 Ibid. 25 The distinctive feature of idioms is that though they are multiword expressions, they are also lexicalized: they have the semantic unity of single words but the grammatical flexibility, though in varying degrees, of phrases, semi-clauses, and clauses, which indeed the majority are. 33 Hence, they need to be described by means of the descriptive procedures common to both the grammar and the vocabulary. Semantic unity and the corollary of such unity, non-literalness, and opacity also serve the communicative needs of the language-user by adding to the synonymic resources of the language forms which are connotatively different and whose composite nature makes them specially suited to different forms of word play. 33 Ibid, p.74. 26

CHAPTER III RESEARCH FINDINGS

A. Data Description

To support this analysis in this research the writer uses the following data description to be analyzed then. The table contained difference meaning of American and British Idioms that is found in the dictionary and short story. Table 3.1 Short story No Corpus Lines 1. „The hair of the mastiff that bit me?’ he said. „Oh, no, thank you. 16 Table 3.2 Dictionary No. Corpus Idiom Meaning 1. Kick the bucket To die. Derived from the slaughter of pigs.

B. Analysis

From the tabulated corpus data on the table above the writer tries to analyze the data by comparing the difference meaning of American and British Idioms from the dictionary and short story. From the short story you were perfectly fine Line 16, the hair of the mastiff dog that bit me. This Idiom, common to both countries, may need some