8
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter consists of theories related to the topic of the research. There are two major sections which are used as the groundwork of this research. They
are theoretical description and theoretical framework.
A. THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION
The researcher in this chapter, make an effort to gather theories related to writing, descriptive writing, and grammatical errors to support the research. The
theories were stated by experts in language teaching.
1. The Concept of Writing
Since this research is frequently related to writing, especially descriptive writing, the researcher considers that it is important to analyze the concept of
writing. According to Harmer 2001: 88, writing can be defined by a series of contrast:
a. It is both a physical and a mental act. At the most basic level, writing is the physical act of committing words
or ideas to some medium. On the other hand, writing is a mental work of inventing ideas, thinking about how to express them, and organizing
them into statements and paragraphs that will be clear to a reader. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
9 b. Its purpose is both to express and impress.
Writers typically serve two masters: themselves, and their own desires to express an idea or feeling, and readers or audience who need to have
ideas expressed in certain ways. Writers then choose the best form for their writing - a shopping list, notes from a meeting, a scholarly article, a
novel, or poetry are only a few of the choices. Each of these types of writing has a different level of complexity, depending on its purpose.
c. It is both a process and a product. The writer imagines, organizes, drafts, edits, reads, and rereads. This
process of writing is often cyclical, and sometimes disorderly. Ultimately, what the audience sees, whether it is an instructor or a wider
audience is a product - an essay, letter, story, or research report.
2. Writing focus on language structures
Hyland 2003: 3-4 said that one way to look at writing is to see it as marks of a page or a screen, a coherent arrangement of words, clauses, and
sentences, structured according to a system of rules. Conceptualizing second language writing in this way directs attention to writing as a product and
uncourageous a focus on formal text units or grammatical features of texts.
3. The Process of Writing
Writing is a paper work, and it should be gone about in a workmanlike manner. … and, like any other job, it should be done in a series of steps. Each step
10 presents its problems, but each makes an important contribution to the finished
paper Perrin, 1965: 38. He proposed these stages of writing a paper: Stages of Writing a Paper
a. Focusing on a subject – Definition of topic, sensing of problem involved and of possible sources of information.
b. Gathering material – Notes from memory, observation, interviews, reading, speculation.
c. Deciding on methods of development – The ways of approaching and exploring the subject.
d. Organizing the paper – A synopsis or outline of the paper. e. Writing the first draft – Tentative of the copy.
f. Revising – Necessary changes in material, corrections and improvement in words, sentences, paragraphs.
g. Preparing the manuscript – The completed paper, ready for reading or for printing.
h. Seeing the manuscript into the print – The printed copy. Whereas, the stages outlined based on Tribble 1996: 38 below are among the
most commonly reported.
PREWRITING specifying the task planning and outlining collecting data making
notes L
COMPOSING L
REVISING reorganizing shifting emphasis focusing information and style for your
readership L
EDITING checking grammar lexis surface features, for example punctuation,
spelling, layout, quotation conventions, references PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
11 Another type of process writing is proposed by Raimes 1983: 139
Selection of Preparation
Writing Rewriting, Teacher’s
topic for
writing and editing
marking of
prewriting proofreading
paper activities
There is also a process model of writing instruction according to Hyland 2003: 11
Selection of topic: by teacher andor students
Prewriting: brainstorming, collecting data, note taking,
outlining, etc.
Composing: getting ideas down on paper
Response to draft: teacherpeers respond to ideas, organization, and style
Revising:
reorganizing, style, adjusting to readers, refining ideas
Response to revisions:
teacherpeers respond to ideas, organization, and style
Proofreading and editing:
checking and correcting form, layout, evidence, etc.
Evaluation:
teacher evaluates progress over the process
Publishing: by class circulation or presentation,
noticeboards, etc. Follow-up tasks:
to address weaknesses
In each of the stages of writing process above, the writer can jump backward or forward to any of these activities.
4. Descriptive Writing
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