tools invented by the Babylonians and Romans. Rastaman also use marijuana as a ritual or pray and they didn’t drink alcohol. In addition, Baskara 2008:76 says,
“Rastafari juga mengenal tipe-tipe upacara keagamaan.Upacara ini biasanya berupa acara sederhana di mana orang-orang Rasta
berkumpul, menghisap ganja, dan berdiskusi soal isu-isu etika, sosial, dan keagamaan. Orang yang menghisap ganja menyebut
aktivitasnya itu sebagai doa”. Rastafari is also familiar with the types of religious ceremonies. The ceremony is usually a simple
event where the Rasta people gather, smoke marijuana, and discuss the issues of ethical, social, and religious. People who smoke
marijuana refer to this activity as a prayer.
2.2. Bob Marley: The Spirit of Freedom by Nando Baskara
Reggae is a combination of traditional music and modern music develop in Jamaica. The word ‘reggae’ came from Africans language ‘ragged’ means move or beat. Reggae rise
in ghetto or poor people in Kingston, Jamaica, when many social problems and protests occurred in 1960s. Nando Baskara 2008:58 in Bob Marley: The Spirit of Freedom states
that faktor utama lahirnya reggae adalah soal kondisi ekonomi Jamaika. The main factor of reggae’s arise is about Jamaica economic condition
The music of reggae is influenced by rocksteady, ska and bluesbeat. Baskara 2008:57 states that musik reggae lahir karena pengaruh-pengaruh Ska, RB, music
Karibia, music rakyat, musik gereja Pocomania, Jonkanoo, upacara-upacara petani, dan Mento. Reggae music was born because of the effects of Ska, R B, Caribbean music, folk
music, church music Pocomania, Jonkanoo, ceremonies farmers, and Mento. From the statement, it is clear that reggae has close relationship with Africa culture, it is proved by
Poncomania and Jokanoo which are traditional ceremonies of Africans while practice of slavery occurred. Characteristically reggae has slow beat and make its listener dancing.
Reggae developed into Roots Reggae and Dancehall Reggae in 1970s. Baskara 2008:62-63 explains that nama roots reggae diberikan oleh kalangan Rastafarian, yang berarti sebuah
musik spiritual yang diperuntukan bagi Jah, tuhan kaum Rasta. The name of roots reggae is given by Rastafarian, which means a spiritual music for Jah, God of Rasta people.
Reggae is kind of music which has special history about horrible experience of Blacks people and its struggle for liberation and freedom. Baskara 2008:67 says, “Reggae menjadi
jawaban orang kulit hitam atas kemiskinan, keputusasaan, dan eksploitasi”. Reggae became the answer of Blacks people on poverty, despair, and exploitation. From the statement, it
proves that Reggae not only an entertainment music played by Jamaicans, but it has deeper meaning about the struggle and the resistance. Campbell 1987:351 says, “Bob Marley
focused in reggae session named Reggae Sunsplash, which alwayspromotes his arguments about liberation and struggle”. Reggae Sunsplash firstly introduced by Bob Marley in his
several songs which were contain of critical and protest lyrics, it is why reggae cannot be separated with rebellion. Baskara 2008:63 concludes, “Jadi, dapat dikatakan bahwa music
Reggae merupakan sebuah music bagi para pemberontak”. So, it can be said that Reggae music is music for rebels. In addition, Campbell 1987:299 states, “Not only consists of
idealism aspect and liberation, those songs also criticize the racial hierarchy among people”. In fact, reggae is familiar with one name, he is Robert Nesta Marley, or famous with
Bob Marley. Baskara 2008:58 says Marley memang menjadi sosok awal yang berpengaruh dalam perkembangan music reggae karena gaya bermusik dan aksi panggungnya yang
kreatif. Marley has become an early influential figure in the development of reggae music because music style and creative action stage. Marley introduced the Reggae Sunsplash in
reggae music which are consist of brave lyric about protest and rebellion for liberation, and he also adopted many Rastafari’s beliefs in his song lyrics or known as Roots Reggae type. It
is why Bob Marley regarded as the prophet of Rastaman. Baskara 2008:58 says, “Marley kemudian menjadi superstar internasional dan dianggap sebagai nabi oleh para penganut
keyakinan Rastafari”. Marley became an international superstar and is regarded as a prophet by followers of the Rastafari faith.
Even though Marley is dead in 1981, reggae develops broadly. Now, reggae is not always identic with Jamaica musician, such as Peter Tosh, Bunny Wailer, etc. Baskara
2008:59 says, “Reggae berkembang di Skandinavia, Jerman, Inggris, dan Jepang, juga di negara-negara lainnya”. Reggae develops in Scandinavia, German, England, and Japan,
also in other countries. The international superstar such as Eric Clapton and Paul Simon begin collaborate his music with reggae in 1980s. Besides, Reggae is growing rapidly among
the people in Indonesia now. Reggae musicians began to appear in Indonesia as Tony Q, Ras Muhammad, Steven n Coconut Treez, etc. It shows that reggae is received and enjoyed by
many people around the world.
2.3.From Slavery to Freedom by John Hope Franklin and Alfred A. Moss, Jr
Theoretically human rights are something absolute owned by everyone. But in fact, human rights are only powerful at theoretical but does not have a strong basis for
implementation to some certain groups. Some groups do not absolutely be able to feel equal rights that causes inequalities in social and political among people. They should be treated
with the divergence rights and inequality. Africa is the third largest continent after Asia and America and this continent has
abundant wealth of natural resources. On the mainland, Africa has a mountain named Kilimanjaro 5.895 meter above sea level in Tanzania, and a desert named Sahara, the
largest in the world, and the longest river in the world, named Nile. Besides, Africa is also flanked by two oceans, the Atlantic and Indian. Based on the history of civilization, Africans
has worst experience that occurred long time ago. Africans have horrible story about the practice of the slavery for long time. Recorded
in the history when ancient kingdom in Africa has a regulation about the slavery system, it is based on some traditional culture like the slavery for prisoner of war and sacrifice ritual for
God. John Hope Franklin and Alfred A. Moss, Jr. in From Slavery to Freedom 1947 explain many information and portrayal of Africans slavery. Hope 1947:28 says, “Long before the
extensive development of the slave trade in the hands of Europeans, many of the basic practices of the international slave trade had already been established”. Further, the system of
slavery develops largely in life of Africans after European arrived and colonized the people and then caused the slave trade of Blacks people.
The colonization in Africa region is done by some European nation after their each sailor found and landing there about fifteenth century. In Africa, the colonist exploited
natural resources and commodity beside looked for opportunity will find another advantages included slaves. The necessary of labor which cheaper, stronger and can be obey their rules
easy are the reasons of Europeans trading the slave. The last half of the fifteenth century may be considered as the years of preparation in the history of the slave trade. Hope 1947:30
says, “The search for new trade routes, new lands, and new commodities
provided the opportunities for the use of Negro slaves that the Europeans had been looking for. It was the New World with its vast natural resources
and its undeveloped regions that could make slavery and the slave trade profitable, if indeed it could be profitable anywhere”.
The Blacks who regarded as slavery would be exported to foreign especially Europe. The slave trade was a horrible story for the Blacks people when they were be sold and sent to
other island by ship sailed crossed Atlantic oceans. Hope 1947:36 states, “At the post and from the Africans the traders obtained supplies for the western voyage across the Atlantic”.
Many the people dead in the ship before arrived to destination place and only stronger people can survive. Hope 1947:37 also states,
“Perhaps more than half the slaves shipped from Africa ever became effective workers in the New World. Many of those that had not died of
disease or committed suicide by jumping overboard were permanently disabled by the ravages of some dread disease or by maiming, which often
resulted from the struggle against the chains”.
The slave ship was also like a nightmare for the Blacks people, considering they faced reality to be sold as slaves into stranger land and also struggled to save their life in the
horror ship from disease and breathing trouble among the people because overcrowded. Hope 1947:36 states that the voyage to the Americas, popularly referred to as the middle passage
was a veritable nightmare. Overcrowding was most common. It would be imagined by us about the situation in the ship from Hope 1947:36 statement that says, “There was hardly
standing, lying or sitting room. Chained together by twos, hands and feet, the slaves had no room in which to move about and no freedom to exercise their bodies even in the slightest”.
The survive Blacks would be placed in various sectors based on slave’s master who bought the slaves, and commonly they works as servants in a plantation, industry, and house.
Hope 1947:50 explains, “The urban slaves worked as servants in the town homes of planters, in
shops, at the docks, and in numerous other capacities. On the whole, their lot was not difficult. Some were especially skilled in arts and craft and
performed invaluable services in helping to improve living condition in the urban areas. Others were kept in the homes to render personal service”.
As a slave, Blacks worked without salary and payment and sometimes got worse treatment and oppression, either physic or psychology violence. In fact, the slave trade is the
main factor for many Africans people spreads around the world. It is certainly very tortured live of the Africans, considering they separated from their origin place and should work
without any benefit for them but only oppression and violence treatment. Hope 1947:29
states that there was never any profitable future for Negro slavery in Europe. Besides, Hope 1947:44 also reinforces the fact of the situation by his statement that says, “In the famous
investigation of 1790-1791 no plantation was found where a slave received more than nine pints of corn and one pound of salt meat per week”. In reality, when the Blacks people didn’t
get profit, it was differ to Europeans. In addition, Campbell 1947:37 also says, “The slave trade was still one of the most important sources of Europeans wealth in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries”. The master of slaves is often provide some crazy rules for slaves, like Hope 1947:44
explanation that says, “The investigations brought out the fact that pregnant women were forced to work up to the time of childbirth and that a month was the maximum amount of
time allowed for recovery from childbearing”. Food was, on the whole, not sufficient for slaves. In some case, the landlord did not often encourage any type of diversified agriculture
which would have provided food for the workers. It was the landlordism that constituted one of the most important factors in the development of practice that are manifestly destructive of
health and life among slaves. Hope 1947:44 also says, “Another favorite type of punishment was to suspend the slave from a tree by ropes and tie iron weights around his
neck and waist”. In West, slaves were sent to the farm at daybreak and they labored all day except for a thirty minutes period for breakfast and two hour period in the hottest portion of
the day. From the statements, we found a fact that slave mostly live oppressed and not only for men felt it, but also for women. These atrocities caused rebellion among the slave and
begin emergence much reactions and protest to stop the slave trade. The struggle of Blacks people to abolish the Africans slave trade and slavery’s
practice itself were take a long time. In the beginning, the struggle done personally by slave who shows revenge to his master, they escapes and steal and in some case they tries to fight
his master as a rebellion. But, the struggle develops became structured and planned after a few free and intelligent Blacks joined for the struggle, they are known as antislavery. The
slaves who are spread to different regions especially Europe and America causes the struggle more difficult among antislavery. French Revolution in 1789 also impacts to Blacks in other
region. Campbell 1947:83 says, “When the French Revolution broke out in 1789, the Negroes in the French possessions looked toward the prospect of securing for themselves the
same elements of freedom for which the Frenchmen at home were fighting”.
Early in the nineteenth century antislavery group resumed their efforts to secure stringent federal legislation against the slave trade in United States. Campbell 1947:85 says,
“In January 1800, the free Blacks of Philadelphia led the way by requesting Congress to revise the laws on the slave trade and on fugitives”. From the statement above, we know that
there was serious effort to abolish the slave trade in the Congress, but the fact proved that the practice of imported from Africa to Europe and America still done. It can be proved by
statement of Campbell 1947:85 that explains, “When South Carolina reopened the ports to the trade in 1803, the antislavery forces began to press for action”. Resolutions were
introduced in the Congress condemning the slave trade, but no conclusive steps were taken. Campbell 1947:85 also says,
“The question of the slave trade was brought dramatically before the country in December 1805, when Senator Stephen R. Bradley of Vermont
introduced a bill to prohibit the slave trade after January 1, 1808. In February 1806, Representative Barnabas Bidwell of Massachusetts
introduced a similar measure, but nothing was done about it”.
Antislavery interests both in England and United States rejoiced in the year 1807. England had outlawed the slave trade; and in the same year United States had followed.
There was little real reason for rejoicing in the United States, however, for from the beginning, the law went unenforced. Campbell 1947:85 states,
“In his message to the Congress, December 2, 1806, President Jefferson called the attention of the Congress to the approaching date on which the
slave trade could be prohibited. On March 2, 1807, the law prohibiting the African slave trade was passed. Persons convicted of violating the act
were to be fined and imprisoned. The fines ranged from 800 for knowingly buying illegally imported Negroes to 20,000 for equipping a
slaver”.
The practice of slave trade had agreed to be closed by government in Europe and America, included stop imported-exported Africans slave trade. But, the practice of slavery is
not finish in that time. There remains the practice of import-export of slaves illegally in the small port of United States. Dependence on slave assessed as a trigger for slave traders take
advantage of the situation without regard to existing regulations. It reinforces the fact that the struggle of Black people still long and winding. Campbell 1947:85 states,
“The Industrial Revolution in England, the invention of cotton gin, the extension of slavery into the new territories, and the persistence of the
slave trade into the nineteenth century all had the effect of establishing slavery in the United States on a more permanent basis than ever before.
Even in the New England states, where laws were putting an end to the institution, the Negroes could not express much optimism or any great
faith in the future, for it was well known that New England merchants were still taking slaves into the South and there was still no great moral
indignation against the institution except in isolated areas and groups.”
Until at the late nineteenth century,there were still indications of the practices of slavery against the Blacks. In 1926, Slavery Convention, an initiative of the League of
Nations, was a turning point in banning global slavery. And the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted in 1948 by the UN General Assembly, explicitly banned slavery.
After the closing era of slave trade or in early 20
th
century, arose new problems for the people all over the world throughout racial cases such as discrimination and segregation of
human race. This fact proved that the human rights has longer story on the world. Contemporary international human rights law and the establishment of the United
Nations UN have important historical antecedents. Efforts in the 19
th
century to prohibit the slave trade and to limit the horrors of war are prime examples. In 1919, countries established
the International Labor Organization ILO to overseetreaties protecting workers with respect to their rights, including their health and safety. Concern over the protection of certain
minority groups was raised by the League of Nations at the end of the First World War. However, this organization for international peace and cooperation, created by the victorious
European allies, never achieved its goals. The League floundered because the United States refused to join and because the League failed to prevent Japan’s invasion of China and
Manchuria 1931 and Italy’s attack on Ethiopia 1935. It finally died with the onset of the Second World War 1939.
2.4. Education, Equality and Human Rights; Issues of Gender, ’Race’, Sexuality, disability and Social Class by Mike Cole
In a book entitled Education, Equality and Human Rights; Issues of Gender, ’Race’, Sexuality, disability and Social Class 2000 by Mike Cole, we found many explanations
about human rights and its history. Cole 2000:1 said that all human beingis born free and equal in dignity and rights. In article 2 of Universal Declaration of Human Rights affirms that
everyone is entitled to all rights and freedom set forth in this declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political, or other opinion, national
or social origin, property, birth or other status.
Human rights are moral principles or norms that describe certain standards of human behavior, and are regularly protected as legal rights in municipal and international law. They
are commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights. Cole, 2000:23. They are applicable everywhere and at every time in the sense of being universal, and they are
egalitarian in the sense of being the same for everyone. They require empathy and the rule of law and impose an obligation on persons to respect the human rights of others. They should
not be taken away except as a result of due process based on specific circumstances, and require freedom from unlawful imprisonment, torture, and execution.
Documents asserting individual rights, such the Magna Carta 1215, the English Bill of Rights 1689, the French Declaration on the Rights of Man and Citizen 1789, and the
US Constitution and Bill of Rights 1791 are the written precursors to many of today’s human rights documents. Yet many of these documents, when originally translated into
policy, excluded women, people of color, and members of certain social, religious, economic, and political groups. Nevertheless, oppressed people throughout the world have drawn on the
principles these documents express to support revolutions that assert the right to self- determination.
The doctrine of human rights has been highly influential within international law, global and regional institutions. Actions by states and non-governmental organizations form
a basis of public policy worldwide. The idea of human rights suggests that if the public discourse of peacetime global society can be said to have a common moral language, it is that
of human rights. The strong claims made by the doctrine of human rights continue to provoke
considerable skepticism and debates about the content, nature and justifications of human rights to this day. The precise meaning of the term right is controversial and the subject of
continued philosophical debate, while there is consensus that human rights encompasses a wide variety of rights such as the right to a fair trial, protection against enslavement,
prohibition of genocide, free speech, or a right to education, there is disagreement about which of these particular rights should be included within the general framework of human
rights, some thinkers suggest that human rights should be a minimum requirement to avoid the worst-case abuses, while others see it as a higher standard.
Many of the basic ideas that animated the human rights movement developed in the aftermath of the Second World War and the atrocities of The Holocaust, culminating in the
adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Paris by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. Ancient peoples did not have the same modern-day conception of
universal human rights. The true forerunner of human rights discourse was the concept of natural rights which appeared as part of the medieval natural law tradition that became
prominent during the Enlightenment with such philosophers as John Locke, Francis Hutcheson, and Jean Jacques Burlamaqui, and which featured prominently in the political
discourse of the American Revolution and the French Revolution. From this foundation, the modern human rights arguments emerged over the latter half of the twentieth century,
possibly as a reaction to slavery, torture, genocide, and war crimes, as a realization of inherent human vulnerability and as being a precondition for the possibility of a just society.
As currently formulated, the concept of human rights is a comparatively recent phenomenon. The President of The United Nations General Assembly, Dr. E.H Evatt,
observed at the proclamation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights on December 1948 that this was the first occasion on which the organized world community had
recognized the existence of human rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights UDHRwas adopted by the 56 members of the United Nations. The vote was unanimous,
although eight nations choose to abstain. The UDHR, commonly referred to as the international Magna Carta, extended the
revolution in international law ushered in by the United Nations Charter, namely that how a government treats its own citizens is now a matter of legitimate international concern, and
not simply a domestic issue. It claims that all rights areinterdependent and indivisible. Its Preamble eloquently asserts that,“Recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and
inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice, and peace in the world”. www.human rightshistory.com, accessed on June, 2015
With the goal of establishing mechanisms for enforcing the UDHR, the UN Commission on Human Rights proceeded to draft two treaties, namely the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ICCPR and its optional Protocol and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ICESCR. Together with
the Universal Declaration, they are commonly referred to as the International Bill of Human Rights. The ICCPR focuses on such issues as the right to life, freedom of speech, religion,
and voting. The ICESCR focuses on such issues as food, education, health, and shelter. Both covenants trumpet the extension of rights to all persons and prohibit discrimination.As
of 1997, over 130 nations have ratified these covenants. The United States, however, has ratified only the ICCPR, and even that with many reservations, or formal exceptions, to its
full compliance. Cole, 2000:3 In addition to the covenants in the International Bill of Human Rights, the United
Nations has adopted more than 20 principal treaties further elaborating human rights. These include conventions to prevent and prohibit specific abuses like torture and genocide and to
protect especially vulnerable populations, such as refugees Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 1951, women Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women, 1979, and children Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989.
In Europe, the Americas, and Africa, regional documents for the protection and promotion of human rights extend the International Bill of Human Rights. For example,
African states have created their own Charter of Human and People’s Rights 1981, and Muslim states have created the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam 1990. The
dramatic changes in Eastern Europe, Africa, and Latin America since 1989 have powerfully demonstrated a surge in demand for respect of human rights. Popular movements in China,
Korea, and other Asian nations reveal a similar commitment to these principles.
2.5. Poetry as Literature
