101.2 State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture – FAO

The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2014 212 would need to put measures in place to guard against such impacts and to help ensure that jobs created by increased production of animal feeds benefit local communities. 16 In some cases, countries experience the above scenario, e.g. in Africa and Asia, where the market for fish as food cannot compete with international fishmeal prices. 17 In other countries, prices for some pelagic species traditionally used for fishmeal favour use for human consumption. This is the case for herring, mackerel and blue whiting in Europe, in particular in Norway and Iceland, and jack and horse mackerel in Chile. 18 There is also an increasing conflict between the use of low-value fish for animalfish feeds versus human consumption, especially in Asia. 19 For example, in Viet Nam, where low-value fish is used for fish sauce, there appears to be direct competition between producers of low-cost fish sauce and producers of Pangasius feeds. However, operators and people employed on Pangasius farms can improve their standard of living and access nutritious food. The aquaculture sector would benefit from international standards and certification systems 20 to promote socially and environmentally acceptable products and the development of national-level policy frameworks that would consider food security needs in developing fishmeal and aquaculture industries. In this respect, the FAO guidelines on the use of wild fish as feed in aquaculture 21 discourage the practice where this compromises the food security of vulnerable groups. Availability of land and water Availability of land and water is another possible main constraint to aquaculture growth. In many developed countries, the space for aquaculture growth is often restricted by other competing uses and priorities. Often, mariculture farms are forced to move farther offshore or somewhere else owing to conflict with tourism or urban development. In Asia, the clear alternative option is intensification, as expansion is not foreseeable. There may be some exceptions in Central Asia, but a shortage of freshwater may become a major threat, especially under climate change. 22 In Egypt, water availability is the main factor constraining the growth of the aquaculture industry. Currently, only agriculture drainage water is used for fish farms, but farmers are requesting freshwater as they reuse this water for crops. Moreover, farmers argue that drainage water negatively affects farmed fish owing to the accumulation of pollutants and potential contamination of fish. 23 Environmental impacts and their effect on sector growth and market demand The environmental impacts of aquaculture affect areas where aquaculture takes place. In addition, they are a global concern that can affect consumers’ attitudes. For example, the fast-growing Vietnam catfish Pangasius has attracted strong criticism based on alleged environmental and food safety issues. High-density farming in the lower Mekong Delta has created a negative perception among consumers. Although many of the accusations may not be supported, 24 the local eutrophication impacts cannot be denied. The role of aquaculture in eutrophication has been demonstrated. For example, one study 25 finds that freshwater aquaculture adds to the nutrient loading of river systems, which is likely to increase in the future. Impacts are and will be greater where aquaculture is concentrated and where nutrient exports exceed carrying capacity. Many environmental impacts of aquaculture result from the sum of individual farms but they are rarely addressed at this more “ecosystemic level”. While environmental impact assessments EIAs, licensing and certification systems are required for individual intensivelarge-scale types of farms, there are no mitigation approaches or management measures covering the overall impact of small farms collectively. Some farms generate impacts that affect the farming systems themselves by causing hypoxia, fish kills, fish stress, facilitating conditions for spreading diseases, etc. There are studies on aquaculture “boom and bust” such as milkfish farming in coastal lakes in the Philippines. 26 Other examples connecting with disease issues are salmon in Chile and shrimp in Thailand.