Theory of Motivation REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

the forces acting on or within an organism to initiate and direct behavior. The concept of motivation is also used to explain differences in the intensity of behavior. Additionally, we often use the concept of motivation to indicate the direction of behavior Petri 4. Human are continually interpreting the complex pattern of behaviors they observe in others as well as in themselves. We try to explain our actions in terms of motives that are regarded as causes of behavior. Similarly we try to infer the underlying motivational causes of the behaviors of others. In the field of industrial psychology, a distinction is commonly made between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic rewards. The intrinsic motivation refers to factors that make certain activities rewarding in and of them. Almost anything could potentially be intrinsically motivating for some individuals. Extrinsic rewards refer generally to the kinds of reinforcement situations. It is reinforced by some external agents. Other psychologist states that extrinsic reward is commonly called extrinsic motivation Weiner 257. The concept of intrinsic motivation is defined as the value or pleasure associated with an activity as opposed to the goal toward which the activity is directed. The extrinsic motivation emphasizes the external goals toward which the activity is directed. It is possible two kinds of motivation interact such that extrinsic motivation reduces the degree of intrinsic motivation for a task Jung 140. Beck states that there should be an interaction of intrinsic motivation and external rewards. If the individual sees himself as the causal factor for desirable outcomes, then the behavior producing those outcomes is intrinsically motivating 16 and desirable. On the other hand, if the individual sees his rewards as being dependent on someone else, the activities necessary to get those rewards will be intrinsically motivating. Weiner 257 also prove that there is a growing literature documenting that children with initial interest in a task intrinsic motivation lose some of that interest when an external reward extrinsic motivation is promised for performing that task. Since most human activity is affected by a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, it would be difficult to study the effects of each type of motivation separately Jung 140. According to Rogers and Maslow written in the motivational principles, the core tendency of a person is to actualize individual potential. There is an internal, biological pressure to develop fully the capacities and the talents that have been inherited; the central of motivation of the individuals is to grow and to enhance the basic self Weiner 409. Motivation theories start with the assumption that there is a cause for every behavior. The goal is to identify the causes. Psychologists distinguish between approach causes and avoidant causes. In approach behavior, people do thing because of something they want, desire, or need. In avoidant behavior, people do things to avoid something. From a biological perspective, two primary goals of behavior are to survive and reproduce. If anything poses a threat to our survival, we need to deal with it immediately. According to the basic themes of contemporary motivation theories, all behavior represents an attempt to adapt to the environment Franken 3–5. Social interaction with others is one of the major, which constructs in motivation. Some 17 theorists have also pointed out that we are socially motivated. Social situations have a large influence on our behavior because the presence of others alters our motivation Petri 5-6. Related to the approach of motivation, the psychologists propose some theories. One of the theory that is widely used in supporting the motivation approach is Need Theory. Need Theory grow out of the idea that the energy, direction, and persistence of behavior are due to the existence of needs. Abraham Maslow is perhaps one of the best- known need theory. He argues that the basic psychological needs are associated with deficiency and higher-order needs with growth. This is consistent with the distinction between approach and avoidant motivation. In Maslow’s view, needs can be grouped in categories, which are arranged in a hierarchical fashion Franken 15–16. Self- actualizati on needs Aesthetic needs: symmetry, order and beauty Cognitive needs: to know, understand and explore Esteem needs: to achieve, be competent, and gain approval and recognition Belongingness and love needs: to affiliate with others, be accepted, and belong Safety needs: to feel secure, and out of danger Physiological needs: hunger, thirst, and so forth Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 18 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI These needs above can be strengthened through rewards. By coupling the concept of need and reward, it becomes possible to incorporate the idea that environment is important in shaping human motivation. Rogers quoted in Franken’s book, Human Motivation 17 discusses the growth motivation in relation to the fully functioning individual, while Maslow uses the term self-actualization to describe the motivation to strive for personal fulfillment. Related to the environment, the psychologist uses growth motivation as the major construct the motivation. One aspect of growth motivation is the need to control or have an effect on our environment. It is called effectance motivation by some and personal causation by others. The hierarchy of needs is categorized into two major steps of motivation. The first four steps on Maslow’s hierarchy is deprivation motivation. It constitutes the needs that must be satisfied before one reaches the final level, the level of self- actualization. In the self-actualization, the person is motivated by different conditions than at the lower levels. It is motivated to grow and become all that he or she is capable of becoming. Self- actualization constantly stimulates people to test their abilities and expand their horizons in their environment. People will actualize their principles that they believe in their society. It is the condition when the growth motivation has been achieved. Based on the hierarchy of need, the highest need’s concept; self-actualization concept will be used to observe the Winnie Louie’ motivation to preserve the Chinese Beliefs. 19

2.3. Chinese Beliefs

According to the Hook 288 stated in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of China, Chinese Beliefs divided into three categories namely Cosmology, Divination, and Ancestor Worship. The Chinese Beliefs are based on Sanjiao’s philosophies. Sanjiao Three Dharma is the unity of Daoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. It was applied in the era of Han dynasty up to now Matrisia Komda Jateng 8-11.

2.3.1. Cosmology

China had one of the most highly developed cosmological systems in the world until the Communist Revolution in 1949. There is more than one fraction of systems. However, the most important of the many elements in the Chinese Cosmological system was The Ying and Yang dichotomy Hook 288. Yin was normally seen as the collective representation of all forces in the universe that emanate from the darkness. Yang was the representation of the light. The Yin and Yang dichotomy followed from the basic division that aspects of human experience were often conceptualized as opposites. For instance: day-light, life-death, good-evil, and male-female. The sexual dichotomy with its unambiguous connotation of male supremacy was often used to justify the suppression of women. In the traditional view of women are thought to be weak, emotional, and untrustworthy. The characteristics are related to Yin nature. Basically, the Yin and Yang dichotomy was the basic concept which influenced other aspects in Chinese-Beliefs. 20

2.3.2. Divination

It was practiced in China from about 1700 BC. It was intended to discover the answers of occult powers to simple questions that concerned matters of everyday life or the immediate outcome of a proposed action. For example; the changes of a good harvest, the choices of times for religious services, and the success in the hunt of battle. It was felt that only by taking such precautions could it be ensured that the outcome of the proposed plan would be successful. There are three means in pronouncing the results of divination Hook 289-290: a. Scapulimancy It was the earliest method of divination. It was applied by heating the shoulder bones scapulae of animals or the shells plastra of turtles to induce random cracks in the material. The diviner could determine the outcome of a proposed plan of action. This method was applied in the Sang dynasty and used to ascertain their future or answer their practical problems. The record of each act of divination was inscribed on the bone and shells. They chose turtles; of regarding turtles were the longest-lived animal represented the eternal truths. Divination by turtle shell was practiced at least until the beginning of the 1 st century AD. b. Yijing The Book of Changes It was a book that guided the seer to determine the given answer intuitively. The book contained a wholly symbolical scheme of universal philosophy that linked intuitive divination with China’s intellectual development. 21