13 technologies impact on literacy instruction in classrooms Hagood, Stevens
Reinking, 2003; Lankshear Knobel, 2006; Lewis Finders, 2002. Dudeney and Hockly 2007 find that technology offers new ways for practicing language
and assessing performance. According to Fabos 2001, when the technology comes to the education from victorals, slide and film projectors, radios,
televisions, overhead projector, computers, the internet, and others, it plays a role in education for increasing student engagement, improving classroom efficiency,
and solving teacher shortages as cited in McClarty et al., 2012, p.6. Those theories prove that technology is playing a role in language learning.
3. CALL Computer Assisted Language Learning
Using computers in language learning is not new phenomenon right now. Dudeney and Hockly 2007 define that in the early of 1980’s, computer-based
material for language teaching often referred to as CALL appeared. CALL involves I in applying the principles of computer-assisted learning to language
learning context by applying the computer programs to develop learner’s understanding. CALL is an instructional or educational approach that incorporates
the use of technology into second language learning Technology-Enhanced Instruction for English as a Second Language ESL and Bilingual Education,
2010, p.8. There are some advantages of CALL based on Lai and Kristsonis 2006.
CALL can make learners practice through experiential learning, increase learners’ motivation, enhance student achievement, enlarge authentic materials for study,
encourage better interaction between teachers and students, students and peers,
14 emphasize what the needs of each learner and teacher, regard independence from
a single source of information, and broaden global understanding. The previous theory is supported by Borras 1993 that in recent year, the computer programs in
CALL have suggested for simulating learners to communicate with others to enhance the development of learners’ competence in second language
communication. However, Dunkel 1990 states that learners should be introduced CALL into a program starting with a word processing rather than other
applications like simulations or tutorials. There are some roles of computer in CALL which are directive and non-
directive. Based on the CALL survey that Levy 1997 held, he finds that: “computer as non-directive roles have most frequent responses, and the
directive roles for the computer, as in a manager task, an expert system, or a surrogate teacher, are showed less frequently with the computer actually
taking the place of the teacher the least frequent of all” p.127. However, the most fundamental role of the computer is the computer as
language practice. According to Levy 1997 language practice role was the most frequently recorded within the context of the self-access mode.
4. Online Games
The development of technology becomes more innovative, some people apply technology like computers for second language acquisition. There has been
an increasing interest expressed in the literature on literacy and computer assisted language learning, of the opportunities for learning provided by digital games
Kam, Kumar, Jain, Mathur Canny, 2009; Ang Zaphiris, 2008. Computer and term “online” are interconnected with each other. Online games can be one of
the learning media. According to Derryberry 2007, online game is a game that
15 has 2D 3D graphics, sound, and animation, and rules to play can include
storyboard or storyline, and it can be single player or multiplayer through the internet or computer network. A game without internet connection cannot be said
as online game. Based on McClarty et al 2012, digital games which are online or offline
have claims. The claims that games are built on sound learning principles, games provide personalized learning opportunity, games present more engagement for
the learner, games teach 21
st
century skills, and games offer an environment for authentic and relevant assessment. Those claims show the advantages of digital
games. Games are built on sound learning principles, mean that games teach
learners about how to learn something. Ginsburg 2007 cites that playing is “an important element for healthy child development, including learning
development” as cited in McClarty, 2012, p.8. Based on Gee 2009 games provide failure for learners to start new experience again. Failure here serves as an
integral part of learning as cited in McClarty, 2012, p.8. Without failure, learners cannot appreciate the opportunities that the games give. Learners will improve
their work when they were given constructive feedback Black William, 1998. Games provide a personalized learning opportunity, is the second claims
of games by McClarty et al. According to McClarty et al. 2012, “games also
meet the unique teaching and learning needs of students when new concepts are introduced as a logical learning progression” p.11. According to Masters and
Forster 1996, learning progressions are often described as the path that students
16 take to learn a set of knowledge or skills as cited in McClarty et al., 2012, p.11.
There are learning progressions in every game that students play. Every game has its characteristic which is different from other games. However, Kiili 2005
describes that to maximize the engagement of learners, games should present players with challenges that are matched with their ability as cited in McClarty et
al., 2012, p.12. Based on Squire 2002, games can be the best couple with effective pedagogy as cited in McClarty et al., 2012, p.13. Games will not
replace teachers and classrooms, but they might replace some textbooks and laboratories Steinkueler, Chmiel, 2006; as cited in McClarty et al., 2012, p.13.
Students always expect that their learning would be fun. Warschauer and Healey 1998 state that in language teaching, games have often been used to
simulate motivation and authentic communicative practices, as games have been conceptualized as “the fun factor” of language learning. Besides that, games can
make a person to play a virtual role Gee, 2005. Based on Barab, Arici, and Jackson 2005, “students are also more engaged when a narrative story is present
within the games” as cited in McClarty et al., 2012, p.14. Those are the factors that make games present more engagement for learners.
Games teach 21
st
century skills to students. According to Gee and Shaffer 2010, p.3 :
Games require the kind of thinking that we need in the 21
st
Century because they use actual learning as the basis for assessment. They test not
only current knowledge and skills, but also preparation for future learning. They measure 21
st
Century skills like collaboration, innovation, production, and design by tracking many different kinds of information
about a student, over time as cited in McClarty et al., 2012, p.16.
