orders of groups are strikingly similar, 85 errors are developmental. This finding is also confirmed by Bailey, Madden, and Krashen 1974. They investigate 73 adults
aged 17-55 years; classified as Spanish and non-Spanish-speaking members that separates in 8 ESL classes.
From the above studies then it can be inferred that natural order of acquisition in ESL learners is irrespective of age Goldschneider and DeKeyser, 2001. On the
other hand Ellis and Laporte 1997: 64 as quoted by Goldschneider and DeKeyser 2001 believe that the order acquisition can be explained by interaction between the
characteristic of the elements to be acquired and general cognitive principles of inductive learning. The significance of this findings are intended to show that age of
language learners does not refer to the natural order and sequence of their second language morpheme acquisition.
2. Knowledge of Word
a. Word
Bloomfield as cited from Poole 1999: 10 considers that a word to be a minimum free form, a word, then, is a free form which does not consist entirely of
two or more lesser free forms; in brief a word is a minimum free form. Carter 1998: 5 defines that a word is the minimum meaningful unit of language. On the
other hand, Poole further argues that linguists devised the terms lexeme or lexical item to denote an item of vocabulary with a single referent. It can be inferred that a
word has relation with its reference. Second language learners may be sufficient to show the equivalent meaning in their language.
Word is familiar but eludes precise definition Taylor and Taylor, 1990 as quoted from Susilo 2001: 10. In some purposes linguists or dictionary treat
words differently. Carroll et. all. 1971 as cited from Nation 1990 distinguish words entirely on the basis of form. Word form for some extent may become
significant determination; for example: in the grammatical structure, word forms deal with units that are part of grammatical patterns. In that case, a word can be the
subject of a sentence, the head of a modification structure, a structural signal in the form of a function word, etc. Lado 1984. These all are concern with form of word.
Clearly, Laufer 1997 as quoted from Mukarto 1999: 31 proposes some aspects or features of word that learners need to attend to:
1. Word structure or morphology, i.e. the basic free morpheme and its
derivational and, if any, inflectional morpheme. 2.
Syntactic category, e.g. whether a word is a noun, an adjective or a verb; a verb in English may be mapped in to an adjective in
Indonesia.
3. Relation with other words such as synonymy, hyponymy,
antonymy, and common collocation and registers.
b. The aspects are involved in knowing a word
A language learner needs to understand that knowing a word is not merely able to show the equal meaning in his or her language. Richards 1976 via Read
2000: 25 has outlined eight assumptions which cover various aspects which are involved in knowing a word:
1. The vocabulary knowledge of native speakers continues to expand in
adult life, in contrast to the relative stability of their grammatical competence.
2. Knowing a word means knowing the degree of probability of
encountering that word in speech or print. For many words, we also know
the sort of words most likely to be found associated with the word. 3.
Knowing a word implies knowing the limitation on the use of word according to variations of function and situation.
4. Knowing a word means knowing the syntactic behavior associated with
word. 5.
Knowing a word entails knowledge of the underlying form of a word and the derivation that can be made from it.
6. Knowing a word entails knowledge of network of associations between
that word and other words in the language. 7.
Knowing a word means knowing the semantic value of a word. 8.
Knowing a word means knowing many of the different meanings associated with a word.
Richards, 1976: 83 The study confirms and modifies the fifth assumption. It deals with investigating
Senior High School Students’ ability on the syntactic recognition of derivational suffixes of English words. Furthermore, this study also investigates the
developmental patterns of syntactic recognition of English derivational suffixes. Meanwhile, Cronbach 1942 distinguishes five aspects of lexical knowledge:
generalization knowing the definition, application knowledge about how to use, breadth of meaning knowing the different senses of word, precisions of meaning
knowing how to use the word in different situations and availability knowing how
to use the word productively as cited from Bogaards, 2000: 491. On the other hand, Cruse 1986 via Bogaards 2000: 492prefers to use the concept of lexical
unit which is assumed to be the union of one stable meaning and a well-defined meaning. In accordance with this concept Bogaards proposes six aspects that may be
learned about lexical unit in L2 as he assumes that L2 learners need to learn lexical units not only “words”:
1. form: Learners have to get acquainted with the written andor the spoken
form of the unit. Knowing that a given form does indeed belonging to a given language seems to be a first stage of knowledge.
2. meaning: Knowledge of the semantic side of a lexical unit may come in
different shape. One can have a vague notion, e.g. that haematin has something to do with the blood or that a beech is some kind of tree.
3. morphology: Lexical units have their own conditions on derivation and
compounding. Gracefully and graciously have relationships to two different units which shared the form grace. Even when morphological
mechanisms of the L2 are well understood, many of actual relationships have to be learned one by one see also Bogaards 1994: 53-7. Especially
for productive it is difficult for L2 learners to know whether a given form is possible and in what sense it may be used.
4. syntax: A learner who knows the rule of syntax may make many mistakes
by not applying the right rules to the lexical units. This applies especially to verbs and, to lesser degrees, to adjectives.
Learners have to find out how many and what types of arguments are obligatory or possible with a
verb in a given sense, or which prepositions have to be used with a verb or an adjective in some specific sense, e.g. with a particular lexical unit.
5. collocates: Whereas some lexical units, like very or red seem to be
useable with a great number of other elements of a given category, others have a very restricted realm of use. Most of the collocations that seem so
natural to native speakers make for great trouble for L2. 6.
discourse: In what types of discourse and to what effect can lexical units like furthermore, moreover and what is more be used? Which lexical
units are to be avoided when speaking to someone belonging to another ethnic group or when writing a letter of application? Knowledge of style,
register and appropriateness of particular senses of a same grammar is notoriously difficult for L2 learners.
Nation 1990 as quoted in Susilo 2001: 12 has stated that a word is to be learned or even acquired for receptive listening and reading and productive use
speaking and writing. 1.
Receptive Passive Knowledge Nation 1990 also argues that knowing a word entails being able to
recognize it when it is heard what does it sound like? or when it is seen what does it look like?. This includes being able to distinguish it from words with similar form
and being able to judge if the word sounds right or wrong. Receptive knowledge of a word reflects on having expectation of what grammatical pattern of the word will
occur in. Knowing the verbs suggest involves the expectation that an object
sometimes in the form of clause will follow the word. Knowing the noun music
involves that it will not usually occur in the plural form. Furthermore, according to Nation 1990 knowing a word means knowing its
form spoken and written, its position grammatical patterns, collocations, its function frequency, appropriateness, and its meaning concept and associations as
cited in Laufer and Paribhakt 1998: 367. 2.
Productive Knowledge Productive knowledge is the extension of receptive knowledge Nation,
1990. In this scope, knowing a word means knowing how to pronounce, how to write and spell it, how to use it in correct grammatical patterns along with the words
it usually collocates with. Productive knowledge represents not using the word too often if it is a low-frequency word, and using it in suitable situation. Further, this
knowledge also involves using the word to stand for meaning it represents and being able to think of suitable substitutes for the word if there are any. On the other
hand, Lado 1984 as quoted in Susilo 2001: 14 mentions that an active vocabulary means that unit can be “recalled” almost instantaneously, put into sound
through articulation of its phonemes, placed in its proper stress and intonation frame, into its proper structural positions and functions with its inflectional and
derivational affixes in accord with the context. Most writers have assumed that passive vocabulary is larger than active
Aitchison, 1989; Chanell, 1988; Laufer, 1998 as quoted from Laufer and Paribakht 1998: 369. They add that even tough no one has conclusively demonstrated how
much larger it is or whether growth in passive vocabulary automatically growth in active vocabulary.
c. Morphological processes of a word
According to Quirk and Greenbaum 1973: 430, the chief processes of English word-formation by which the base may be modified are:
1. Affixation: a adding a prefix to the base, with or without a
change of word-class b adding a suffix to the base, with or without a change of word-class
2. Conversion, i.e. assigning the base to a different word-class
without changing its form zero affixation 3.
Compounding, i.e. adding one base to another. They add that once a base has undergone a rule of word-formation, the derived word
itself may become the base for another derivation. In line with those processes, Fromkin and Rodman 1996: 117 have stated that rules which relate to the formation
of word and how morphemes combine to form new words called morphological rules.
The significance of this theory is to show that the study relates to English word formation. It employs one process out of three processes as mentioned
previously i.e. affixation. On the other hand, Radford, Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen, Spencer 1999: 166
explain lexeme as the more abstract term than term of ‘word’. They describe that cat and cats are the singular and plurals of one lexeme CAT; two ‘word forms’ of one
lexeme. They claim that the singular and plural forms of a lexeme are the examples
of inflections; CAT inflects for the plural by taking the suffix –s.
On the other respect, they discuss the existence of the word read and reader in accordance with the lexemeword form distinction. They notice because of the
addition -er to a verb creates a new lexeme and reader and read are distinct lexemes.
Of course, each of them reader and read has a number of word forms: reader and readers
in the case of READER, and reads, reading and read r εd in the case of
READ. Moreover, the new lexeme is of a different syntactic category from that of original lexeme a verb become a noun. They claim that the creation of a lexeme is
the province of derivational morphology or ‘derivation’. They also notice while
adverbs ADV are often derived from adjectives by suffixation of –ly bad ~ bad-ly, noisy ~ noisi-ly
, etc.. The other three categories N, A, and A can, however, readily be derived from each other. They add that preposition P does not participate in
derivation in English or most other languages for that matter.
3. Lexical development
