The Importance of Word Stress Stress System in English

b. The Importance of Word Stress

Comprehending English word stress is a magic key to understanding the spoken English. Although the phonemic function of stress in English is not very significant as in some other languages, it is important to note that in the vast majority of English words where stress does not give rise to phonemic distinction, speakers are not at liberty to stress whichever syllable they like Giegerich, 1992: 180. By paying attention to stress placement, people can still understand the word spoken although they do not hear the complete word. Indonesian learners will find it difficult to master all English word stress since there is no word stress in Indonesian language. It is important for English learner to acquire knowledge on English word stress since an English listener may have great difficulty in understanding the word if a non-native speaker produces a word with the wrong stress pattern, even if most of the individual sounds have been well pronounced Kenworthy, 1987: 28.

c. Stress System in English

Placement of stress can be varied depends on the part of speech of the words also the number of syllables as well. Here are the patterns of word stress for some types of word regardless of the exceptions. 1 Disyllabic words verbs, nouns, and adjectives a Verbs The stress on disyllabic verbs is more likely to fall on the second syllable Avery and Ehrlich, 1992: 67. There are more than 60 per cent of all English PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI verbs have stress on the second syllable. Although most of verbs are stressed on the second syllable, there are still some verbs that get stressed on their first syllable. Roach 1991: 89 defines that there are two basic rules to identify the stress on disyllabic verbs, whether it is on the first or second syllable. Roach 1991: 89 states that the first syllable of the verbs will be stressed if: - The final syllable contains a short vowel and has only one or no final consonant. Example: gather → gæð ə vary → ve əri happen → hæpən - The final syllable contains ə ʊ Example: follow → f lə ʊ borrow → b rə ʊ . The second rule is the second syllable will be stressed if: - The second syllable of the verbs contains a long vowel or diphthong. Example: abhor → əb ɔ :r imply → ɪ mpla ɪ apply → əpla ɪ - The word ends with more than one consonant. Example: assist → əs ɪ st abound → əba ʊnd attract → ətrækt. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI Giegerich 1992: 184 also has the same statement that the final syllable will be stressed if the word ends with: - A heavy vowel æ and e + a consonant. Example: distract → d ɪ strækt - A long vowel or a diphthong. Example: rely → r ɪ la ɪ - A long vowel + a consonant. Example: assert → əs ɜ :t - A vowel + a cluster of two consonants. Example: resist → r ɪ z ɪ st b Nouns Unlike the stress on verbs, the stress on disyllabic nouns usually falls on the first syllable. More than 90 per cent of all English disyllabic nouns are stressed on their first syllable Avery and Ehrlich, 1992: 67. Although nouns with final syllable are comparatively rare in English Giegerich, 1992: 184 there are some nouns that have the stress on the second syllable. There are simple rules to identify the stress on disyllabic nouns Roach, 1991: 89: if the second syllable contains a short vowel, the stress will usually come on the first syllable. For example: angel → e ɪ n ʤ əl, cemist → kem ɪ st, and agent → e ɪ n ʤ ənt. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI Nevertheless, if the second syllable contains a long vowel, the second syllable will be stressed. This rule can be found in police → pəli:s, bamboo → bæmbu: and balloon → bəlu:n. c Adjectives Like disyllabic verbs, most of disyllabic adjectives have stress on their second syllable. However, there are rules to identify the stress on disyllabic adjectives. The first syllable will be stressed if the final syllable contains a short vowel and has one or no final consonant Roach, 1991: 89. For example handsome → hæns əm, clever → klevə, and pretty → pr ɪ t ɪ . The second syllable will be stressed if the disyllabic adjectives end with a cluster of two or more consonants Liles, 1972: 211. Moreover, Roach 1991: 89 states that the second syllable is stressed if the second syllable contains a diphthong or a long vowel. Abrupt → əbr ʌ pt, alive → əla ɪ v, and robust → r ə ʊ b ʌ st are the examples. 2 Trisyllabic words verbs, nouns, and adjectives a Verbs There are two rules applied to trisyllabic verbs. A verb will have penultimate stress if that verb ends in a non-tense vowel and followed by a single consonant Chomsky and Halle, 1968: 69. Roach 1991: 90 has the same opinion by stating that stress will be placed in penultimate syllable if the last syllable contains a short vowel and ends with not more than one consonant. For instance consider → k əns ɪ d ər, abandon → əbændən, and determine → d ɪ t ɜ :m ɪ n PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI However, the final syllable will be stressed if the last vowel is a tense vowel or the last vowel followed by a cluster of two or more consonants Liles, 1972: 211. Moreover, Chomsky and Halle 1968: 70 also Roach 1991: 90 state that a verb will have a final stress if the last syllable contains a long and tense vowel or diphthong and ends with more than one consonant. Examples: resurrect → rez ərekt and correspond → k r ɪ sp nd. b Nouns The basic rule for trisyllabic nouns is the penultimate syllable will be stressed if it is heavy Giegerich, 1992: 187. Nevertheless, if the penultimate syllable is light, stress the antepenultimate syllable McMahon, 2002: 120. In detail, there are some additional rules to identify the placement of word stress on trisyllabic nouns. If the final syllable contains a short vowel or ə ʊ , it is unstressed; if the syllable preceding this final syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong, or if it ends with not more than one consonant, that middle syllable will be stressed Roach, 1991: 90. For instance acacia → əke ɪ ∫ə, disaster → d ɪ z :st ə, synopsis → s ɪ n ps ɪ s, and potato → pəte ɪ t ə ʊ . If the final syllable contains a short vowel and the middle syllable contains a short vowel and ends with not more than one consonant, both final and middle syllable are unstressed and the first syllable is stressed Roach, 1991: 90. Thus: abdomen → æbdəmən, vertebra → v ɜ :t ɪ br ə, cinema → s ɪ n əmə, and paraffin → pærəf ɪ n. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI However, if the final syllable has diphthong or ends with more than one consonant, the stress will usually be placed on the first syllable. Elephant → el ɪ f ənt, marigold → mær ɪ g ə ʊ ld, adjutant → æ ʤʊ t ənt, and stalactite → stæl əkta ɪ t are the examples Roach, 1991: 90. c Adjectives There are three basic rules to identify the placement of the stress on trisyllabic adjectives Liles, 1972:211. The first rule is stress on trisyllabic adjectives is placed on the last tense vowel of the word. The second rule is the stress will be placed on the last vowel of an adjective if it is followed by a cluster of two or more consonants. The last rule is the penultimate syllable will be stressed if neither of the above conditions is met. The examples are esthetic → esθet ɪ k, alternate → :lt ɜ :n ət, and specific → spəs ɪ f ɪ k. 3 Affix words Affixes are two sorts in English: prefixes, which come before stem and suffixes, which come after the stem Roach, 1991: 95. Moreover, there are three possible effects on word stress caused by the addition of affixes Roach, 1991: 96: 1. The affix itself receives the primary stress. E.g. circle → s ɜ :kl semi + circle → semis ɜ :kl 2. The word is stressed just as if the affix was not there. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI E.g. happy → hæpi un + happy → ʌ nhæpi 3. The stress remains on the stem, not the affix, but is shifted to a different syllable. E.g. magnet → mægnət magnet + ic → mægnet ɪ k a. Prefixes The effects of prefixes on stress do not have the comparative regularity, independence, and predictability of suffixes, and there is no prefix of one or two syllables that always carries primary stress Roach, 1991: 98. However, according to Asher 1994: 5018, there are two factors to be considered: some prefixes behave as if they were not there with respect to stress, such as ex- husband → eksh ʌ zb ənd and misfortune → m ɪ sf ɔ : ʧ u:n, and some prefixes are not capable of taking stress, even if the rules predict that they should have it, as in readdress → ri:ədres and prenatal → pri:ne ɪ t əl. The action of resisting stress is called stress repellent and normally causes stress to fall on the following syllable. b. Suffixes Morphologically, there are two kinds of suffixes: inflexional and derivational Giegerich, 1992: 190. Inflexional suffixes are those that produce different forms of the same word: for example, the past tense of the verbs slept, washed, wrote, etc. , the plural form of apple apples, the present-participle of the verb run PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI running, and et cetera. On the other hand, derivational suffixes mean the suffixes that produce new words. For example is the suffix –less. When it is attached to a noun base it will, then, form an adjective as in homeless, meaningless , and friendless. Next are –ly that will form adverbs when attached to adjectives beautifully, neatly, carelessly, etc., –ee that forms nouns when attached to verbs employee, refugee, payee, etc. and so on. On the phonological side, Giegerich 1992: 191 divides suffixes into two types; there are stress-neutral suffixes and stress-shifting suffixes. Stress-neutral has two properties that differentiate it from stress-shifting. Firstly, stress-neutral never make any difference to the stress pattern of their base. The example is the stress patterns of realizing, happiness, penniless are the same as those of realize, happy , and penny. Secondly, the suffixes will never receive any stress although there is more than one suffix attached to one stem as in meaninglessness. However, stress-shifting suffixes may change the stress pattern of the word without suffixes from the word with suffixes. For instance atom → ætəm with atomic → ət m ɪ k and proverb → pr v ɜ :b with proverbial → prəv ɜ :bi əl. Also, stress-shifting suffixes can bear the main stress of the word as in Chinese, usherette , and arabesque. Giegerich 1992: 192 finds it difficult in giving clue how to classify English suffixes nevertheless Roach 1991: 96-98 tries to divide most common suffixes into three main characters. Thus: 1. Suffixes that carry primary stress themselves The word stress falls on the suffix instead of the stem. Here are some suffixes that get the stress after being attached to the stem. ‘-ee’: trustee : trust → tr ʌ st trust + -ee → tr ʌ sti: refugee : refuge → refju: ʤ refuge + -ee → refju: ʤ i : ‘-eer’: engineer : engine → en ʤɪ n engine + -eer → en ʤɪ n ɪ ər mountaineer : mountain → ma ʊ nt ɪ n mountain + -eer → ma ʊ nt ɪ n ɪ ər ‘-ese’: journalese : journal → ʤɜ :n əl journal + -ese → ʤɜ :n əli:z Japanese : Japan → ʤ əpæn Japan + -ese → ʤ æp əni:z ‘-ette’: cigarette : cigar → s ɪ g :r cigar + -ette → s ɪ g əret launderette : launder → l ɔ :nd ər launder + -ette → l ɔ :ndret ‘-esque’: picturesque: picture → p ɪ k ʧ ər picture + -esque → p ɪ k ʧ əresk statuesque : statue → stæ ʧ u: PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI statue + -esque → stæ ʧ uesk 2. Suffixes that do not affect stress placement Following are the examples of some suffixes that do not affect the placement of the word stress after it is attached to the stress. ‘-able’: questionable : question → kwes ʧ ən question + -able → kwes ʧ ənəbl ‘-age’: marriage : marry → mæri marry + -age → mær ɪʤ ‘-al’: mystical: mystic → m ɪ st ɪ k mystic + -al → m ɪ st ɪ k əl ‘-en’: sweeten : sweet → swi:t sweet + -en → swi:tən ‘-ful’: colour : colour → k ʌ l ər colour + -ful → k ʌ l əfəl ‘-ing’: interesting : interest → ɪ nt ərest interest + -ing → ɪ nt ərest ɪ ŋ ‘-ish’: purplish : purple → p ɜ :pl purple + -ish → p ɜ :pl ɪ ∫ ‘-like’: birdlike : bird → b ɜ :d bird + -like → b ɜ :dla ɪ k ‘-less’: powerless : power → pa ʊ ər PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI power + -less → pa ʊ ələs ‘-ly’: equally : equal → i:kwəl equal + -ly → i:kwəli ‘-ment’: puzzlement : puzzle → p ʌ zl puzzle + -ment → p ʌ zlm ənt ‘-ness’: nastiness : nasty → n :sti nasty + -ness → n :stinəss ‘-ous’: dangerous : danger → de ɪ n ʤ ər danger + -ous → de ɪ n ʤ ərəs ‘fy’: simplify : simple → s ɪ mpl simple + -fy → s ɪ mpl ɪfaɪ ‘-wise’: clockwise : clock → kl k clock + -wise → kl kwa ɪ z ‘-ize’: fertilize : fertile → f ɜ :ta ɪ l fertile + -ize → f ɜ :t ɪ la ɪz ‘-y’: cheesy : cheese → ʧ i:z cheese + -y → ʧ i:zi 3. Suffixes that influence stress in the stem The attachment of the suffix moves the stress to the final syllable of the stem on disyllabic stems and to the penultimate syllable of the stem on trisyllabic stem. ‘-eous’: courageous : courage → k ʌ r ɪʤ courage + -eous → kəre ɪʤ əs ‘-ial’: adverb : adverb → ædv ɜ :b adverb + -ial → ədv ɜ :bi əl ‘-ic’: economic : economy → ɪ k n əmi economy + -ic → ɪ k ən m ɪ k ‘-ion’: narration : narrate → nære ɪ t narrate + -ion → nəre ɪ ∫ən ‘ious’: mysterious : mystery → m ɪ st əri mystery + -ious → m ɪ st ɪ əriəs ‘-ity’: legality : legal → li:gəl legal + -ity → li: gæləti 4 Compounds Compound is the concatenation of two or more lexemes to form a single new lexeme Fasold and Connor-Linton, 2006: 73. In other words, compounding is making a new word made up from two words written in conventional spelling as one, with or without a hyphen Jones, 1972: 257. Moreover, compounds are sometimes written as two separate words. However, the way it is written does not affect their stress pattern Avery and Ehrlich, 1992: 69. The main characteristic of compound is that it can be analyzed into two words, both of which can exist independently as English words Roach, 1991: 98. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI Most of the compounds consisted of two elements have stress on their first element as in daybreak → de ɪ bre ɪ k, key-hole → ki:hə ʊ l, pickpocket → p ɪ kp k ɪ t, and windscreen → w ɪ ndskri:n. Jones 1972: 258-260 states that there are several characteristics of compounds that have stress on their first element. Those are: 1. The compound noun denotes a single new idea rather than the combination of two ideas suggested by the original words. E.g. greenhouse → gri:nha ʊ s blacksmith → blæksm ɪ θ 2. The meaning of the whole compound noun is the meaning of the second element restricted in some important way by the first element. E.g. birthday → b ɜ : θde ɪ carthorse → k :th ɔ :s 3. The first element of the compound nouns is either expressly or by implication contrasted with something. E.g. flute player → flu:tpleiə 4. The meaning of the compound adjective is practically synonymous with its first element. E.g. oval-shaped → ə ʊ vl ∫e ɪ pt 5. The compound noun is commonly or very frequently used attributively. E.g. midnight → m ɪ dna ɪ t 6. The compound noun is constructed of a verb and an adverb. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI E.g. make-up → me ɪ k ʌ p getaway → getəwe ɪ Even though most two-element compounds have stress on their first syllable, there are some compounds that have stress on their final syllable. According to Roach 1991: 99-100, there are several types of two-element compounds that stressed on their final elements, thus: 1. Compounds with an adjectival first element and the –ed morpheme at the end. E.g. bad-tempered → bædtempəd left-handed → lefthænd ɪ d 2. Compounds which have a number as their first elements. E.g. second-hand → sekəndhænd three-wheeler → θri:wi:lər 3. Compound functioning as verbs and have an adverbial first element. E.g. downgrade → da ʊ ngre ɪ d ill-treat → ɪ ltri:t 4. Compound functioning as adverbs E.g. head-first → hedf ɜ :st downstream → da ʊ nstri:m However, different rules are applied to three-element compounds Jones, 1972: 261. The stress is more likely to fall on the second element if the first two elements taken alone form a compound that has stress on the final element. For example ginger beer bottle → ʤɪ n ʤ əb ɪ əb tl, and wastepaper basket → PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI we ɪ stpe ɪ p əb :sk ɪ t. Otherwise, three-element compounds have main stress on their first element. Examples: teaspoonful → ti:spu:nf ʊ l, and watercress bed → w ɔ :t əkresbed. 5 Word-class pairs words Word-class pairs words are words which are identical in spelling but different in the stress placement, according to its word class. There is no significant rule in identifying the stress of word-class pairs words. The most common rule is the stress is likely to fall on the second syllable of a verb and fall on the first syllable of a noun or adjective Roach, 1991: 100-101. The examples are: - present V → pr ɪ zent N → prezənt - object V → əb ʤ ekt N → b ʤɪ kt Although most of word-class pairs words have a different stress placement, some of them share a same stress placement. Thus: open V and A → ə ʊ p ən and envy V and N → envi.

2. A Brief Overview of English Nouns