Assessing for processes and presentation texts

31 2 Weakness of EWP 31. a The relative freedom of choice afforded to candidates may result in such a range of responses that it is difficult for assessment guidelines to cover all possibilities. 32. b Opportunities to demonstrate higher order cognitive skills may be constrained if candidates don‘t have appropriate levels of communicative competence. 33. c The assessment of essays and other forms of extended writing is notoriously unreliable — consistency of individual markers is an issue, as is standardization of the assessments of groups of markers EVALUATING WRITING Students should be assessed on their knowledge and understanding about writing, their skill in composing a range of texts, their understanding about and use of the processes of writing and their skills in presenting texts for publication. Samples of students‘ writing, carefully selected over time, provide evidence of progress. For this evidence to be useful in teaching, students ‘ writing should be assessed against specific criteria. These criteria must be shared with students when assessment tasks are set. Teachers need to make sure that students are clear about what is required of the set task, how achievement of it will be assessed and how this links to the achievement of syllabus outcomes John, 1999. a. Assessing composition of texts:  Criteria for assessing writing need to cover the whole text, and the sentence-level and word-level aspects of a text. Students who demonstrate control of these features produce more effective texts.  Text-level criteria apply to features of the text as a whole or features across the text. The purpose or theme of the text, the tense used, the text structure, the types of sentences and the cohesive elements, such as conjunctions and pronoun reference, are examples of aspects that can be considered across a text.  Sentence-level criteria cover adequate construction of clauses, subject and verb agreement, use of articles, prepositions and punctuation.  Word-level criteria focus assessment on spelling and subject-specific vocabulary. When teachers are selecting criteria for assessing writing, it is important to remember that some assessments will consider all levels but at times, where the learning focus has been more specific, the assessment might be more focused.

b. Assessing for processes and presentation texts

 Drafting, revising, conferencing, editing, proofreading and publishing can also provide useful information about students‘ achievements. Many of these processes can be assessed together. Editing could provide information about knowledge of text-level, sentence-level or word-level features that have been demonstrated or are still developing  Much of this evidence would need to be collected by observing students ‘ behaviours and interacting with them during these processes, in order to confirm that they have developed knowledge about writing and that they understand what they are doing. Successive drafts, from first draft to publication, may also provide written evidence of knowledge, skills and understanding CONCLUSION In related to the written language, writing is a means of communicating ideas and information which are related to the thinking process and expression of ideas in written form. It is important for the students to express their ideas and opinions. Writing is a complex activity. There are several process, mental and physical being carrier at the same time. In order to provide effective ways in teaching writing process based on the research finding and pertinent ideas have found many ways. As we know, writing is not easy to do, but through writing we have an opportunity and learn something we did not know. Meanwhile, EWP is extremely useful to the write as a means of clarifying and communicating our thinking, and to those who read it as means of assessing and responding to the relevance and validity of what the writers have 32 written, the students also were required to write an extended text in four consecutive sections, each of which is read and assessed by their tutor or teacher. Therefore, through the EWP, students get the chance to draft, revise, and correct a text. So the students can built their idea and it can make the students easy to organize their idea. EWP will be an interesting way to stimulate the idea of the students and motivate them to make a good composition. In addition, the English teacher can apply this method in writing process to make herhis students always open-minded. REFERENCES 1. Http:www.thutong.doe.gov.zaExtendedWritingtabid4238Default.aspx.Retrieved May 4th 2016 2. John, A. 1999. Focus on Literacy: Writing. Sydney: Waiver 3. Kern, R.G. 2000. Literacy and Language Teaching. NEW YORK: Oxford University Press 4. Research Report SQA. 2010. Retrieved from httpwww.sqa.org.uksqafiles_cccPNP_ResearchReport12_ExtendedWritingTasks.pdf on May 4th 2016 5. Walker, Robin. And Carmen perez Riu. 2008. Coherence Assessment of Writing Skill. ELT Journal 18-27. 33 Language Laboratory Development and Listening Instruction: A Literature Review Refi Ranto Rozak 1, 2 1 Doctoral Degree of English Language Teaching, Post Graduate Program of Semarang State Univesity UNNES Bendan Ngisor, Semarang 50233 Central Java, Indonesia 2 English Education Department, IKIP PGRI Bojonegoro Jalan Panglima Polim No. 46 Bojonegoro East Java, Indonesia Corresponding author: Refi.Rantoikippgribojonegoro.ac.id Abstract. The use of language laboratory has been expected to build teachers and students knowledge and skills for using technological assistance to improve listening comprehension teaching. However, many teachers and students still find it is difficult to get the benefits of using the language laboratory. This paper discusses the language laboratory development and listening instruction in Indonesian context. Departing from an overview of language laboratory, the drawbacks of teaching listening in language laboratory are identified. Following this, teaching listening in language laboratory is put forth to highlight two types of listening. Finally, language laboratory-based listening instruction improvement is given to broaden the knowledge of teachers and students in determining the innovative listening comprehension teaching. AN OVERVIEW OF LANGUAGE LABORATORY Language laboratory is defined as an instructional technology tool consisting of a source unit that can disseminate audio materials to any number of students at individual seats or carrels LeeAnn, 1991: 2. The Language lab modules have some features. First, Students can choose an English teaching program they are interested in and learn on their pace of learning. Second, students can take advantage from language lab by doing extra mechanical and significant practice of language which can take place in the laboratory where there is an ideal and accurate model and immediate comparison of the students‘ production with the model Nadjah, 2012: 21. Third , language laboratory offers teachers more powerful teaching tools with the aid of modern computer technology Satish, 2011: 86. Thus, when used properly, language laboratory can greatly increase the effectiveness of good teachers and students, whether or not they are native speakers of the target language or not. In the implementation of computer-assisted language learning CALL in language laboratory, in particular, students are required to build their knowledge and skills for using various technological assistance to improve their linguistic competency. Nunan cited in Brenes, 2006: 8 indicates that the notion of information communication technology ICT is becoming ubiquitous these days, with numerous education departments requiring students to demonstrate a degree of technological literacy. Some studies explore how technology, specifically computer- mediated communication CMC, is employed as a regular component in their language teacher education program Slaouti Motteram, 2006; Tochon Black, 2007; Lord Lomicka, 2007. Specifically, language laboratory employs an integrated technological system which helps both teachers and students in teaching and learning foreign language. With the development of technology, many studies have been conducted to investigate the effect of the use of computers in language learning, and many findings and evidence provide positive evaluation in this field see Warschauer and Healey, 1998, Chapelle 2001, 2003 and Hegelheimer and Tower, 2004. Furthermore, several studies carried out at universities illustrate that computer programs have been used in university language centres to support students in developing their language skills including listening and speaking both for academic and general purposes e.g. Gilmour, 2004 and Watson and Wright, 2005. 34 The Drawbacks of Teaching Listening in Language Laboratory The drawbacks of teaching foreign language listening in language laboratory is occurred for five main reasons. First , certain teachers consider their absolute role as the center of learning activities. As Rivers 2000 pointed out that teacher-centered mode of language laboratory could not be interactive instruction. This audiolingualism basis cannot help learners with the real life situations where they intend to use the language with the meanings coming from their own needs and intentions Arkoç, 2008: 1. Second, teachers and students are lack of information, communication, and technology ICT literacy as a primary tool in teaching language through theoretical explorations of electronic literacy and hands-on practical training in using those technologies. Many teachers and students report feeling inadequately trained and ill-prepared to meet the challenges of integrating computer technologies into their pedagogies Schrum, 1999; Sprague, Kopfman, Dorsey, 1998, and, additionally, teachers may feel isolated if the pre- or in-service technology experience is limited Brownell, 1997; Orrill, 2001. Third, certain teachers who used the lab failed to implement appropriate activities especially designed for language lab sessions Brenes, 2006: 2. Furthermore, the initial impact is weakened by the rather old-fashioned drill-based learning which it promoted. Fourth, many teachers rely on their restricted materials in teaching listening and most of them are not authentic. Consequently, the listening materials used are eventually appeared out of date Dias Strong, 2010: 21. Whereas, learners feel better with authentic materials h elping them involve in the ‗real‗ language as long as teacher educators provide them with pedagogical support Kilickaya, 2004: 2. Teaching Listening in Indonesian Context In Indonesia, the teaching of EFL listening can be seen from various aspects. The first is how EFL listening is included as part of the curriculum of educational institutions. This, in particular, refers to the teaching of EFL listening either as a discrete or integrated language skill. The second is how listening activities are designed to improve students listening ability. This concerns the development of various teaching and listening techniques that have been applied in English classrooms or in English language laboratories. The third is what types of language teaching media are used to teach EFL listening. The types of media may vary from the use of tape or CD players in the classroom to the use of multi-media language laboratory. In terms of its status as a curricular component, EFL listening can be taught discretely as a particular course, especially, in English departments of universities and it has certain course names such as Listening or Listening Comprehension. Listening is provided as discrete courses due to the students needs to listen to various types of English discourses intensively as part of their curricular activities. For instance, EFL listening comprehension in language laboratory of English education department IKIP PGRI Bojonegoro teacher training college of education is used to teach listening programs for pre-service English language teachers. It is a pivotal place to practise their English language proficiency. Particularly, in the teaching of listening, there are three required courses offered: Intensive Listening basic listening, Intermediate Listening, and Extensive Listening advance listening. In Intensive Listening, student teachers are trained how to learn listening intensively, which adopt a comprehension approach. Sometimes, they are taught to notice pronunciation features. In Intermediate Listening, this course remains to focus on language exercises. They are also trained how to understand different speech acts in spoken texts. In Extensive Listening,, student teachers are exposed to extended spoken texts taken from such internationally standardized language tests as TOEFL and IELTS as well as authentic materials prescribed by teacher educators. EFL Listening can also be taught in an integrated way along with other language skills, namely speaking, reading, and writing. The integrated way of teaching listening usually takes place in intensive courses, either in English departments or in specialized programs prepared by some private courses and in the secondary schools as demanded by the 2006 School- Based Curriculum. The 2004 English curriculum requires the teaching of language skills as integrated skills within two cycles: the oracy listening and speaking and literacy reading and writing. Moreover, the 2006 Standard of Content shows that the four language skills are given equal emphasis in the teaching of English Depdiknas, 2006. With this policy, listening is no longer neglected in the teaching of English in Indonesia. Regardless of the equal status, compared to materials for other language skills, listening materials are still limited, in the sense that there is no material that can be used readily to teach English based on the 2006 Standard of Content. At the secondary level of education, the Standard of Content enables all stakeholders such as teachers, principals, and material developers to develop English teaching materials, should they wish to do so. At the tertiary level, there has been no standard that can be used to develop such materials. In his account on the establishment of standard for the teaching of listening, Sutrisno 2003 argues that each university should develop their own standards by accommodating two important factors: the language ability of the students and their needs for learning as demanded 35 by the development in the era of globalization. With these considerations, Sutrisno states that listening materials should be able to help learners understand transactional and interactional types of texts as used by native speakers of English or presented through foreign electronic broadcasting media such as British Broadcasting Company BBC, Voice of America VOA, or Central News Network CNN. Teaching Listening in Language Laboratory The success of listening instruction is determined by a number of factors, one of which is the types of listening activities. Harmer 2007 classifies listening activities into two types: extensive and intensive listening. Extensive listening is carried out outside the classroom. Therefore, any material available outside the classroom e.g., radio, TV, personal computer, the Internet can be used for extensive listening. The activities conducted in extensive listening should integrate some principles as it is proposed by Day and Bramford 2012. These principles include 1 The listening material is easy; it should fall within t he remit of learners‘ language capacity; β a variety of listening material on a wide range of topics must be available; language learners should have access to listening material outside the classroom; 3 learners should choose what to listen: they should be given autonomy to pick spoken texts at their own convenience; 4 learners should listen to spoken texts as much as possible; they need to do sustained listening; 5 the purpose of listening is usually related to pleasure, information, and general understanding; 6 listening is its own reward; language learners should spent time doing EL as part of their lived experience; 7 listening is meaning making activity; learners focus on the gist of spoken texts; 8 listening is personal; learners listen to spoken texts at their own pace and convenience; 9 teachers play roles as scaffolders who always support learners‘ learning to listen and listening to learn; 10 teachers are role models of listeners; they should demonstrate how to do and sustain EL. These principles indicate that EL involves the zone of proximal development the remit of learner capacity, autonomy, variety, personalization, quality and quantity, meaning making, scaffolding or support, and sustained engagement. Meanwhile, some of the advantages of extensive listening materials are that students can use them based on their preference and they can use the materials as many times they want Harmer, 2007: 303. Meanwhile, intensive listening materials e.g., those stored in tapes, CD, or hard disk are already available in the classroom or language laboratory. This type of materials can contain various types of texts e.g., stories, news, and academic texts and modes of presentation e.g., unscripted or natural discourses and scripted or prepared materials. In intensive listening, the students usually listen to the materials at the same time and, if the students do not wear headsets, the voice quality might not be the same for all of the students. It deals with specific items of language, sound or factual details within the meaning framework already established. The focus of intensive listening is on language form. The aim of intensive listening is to raise the learners‘ awareness of how differences in sound, structure, and lexical choice can affect meaning. Because this kind of listening involves an appreciation of how form affects meaning, intensive listening activities must be contextualized – placed in a real or easily imagined situation. In this way, all students – even beginners can practice intensive listening in a context of language use, from which it is most likely to transfer to ―real life‖ listening situations. Language Laboratory-based Listening Instruction Improvement Language laboratory should be viewed as a comfort place to mediate listening comprehension. Teachers should create an innovative and enjoyable learning environment in language laboratory. Dealing with foreign langage acquisition, constructivism and socio-cultural approaches can be integrated into listening instruction in language laboratory. Designing tasks has become one of the most accepted modes of instruction in the last few decades due to its suitability to both communicative and constructivist approaches to learning. The reasons for selecting tasks may be complex and one of the reasons, according to Willis 1996, in Swan, 2005: 378, that it offers the possibility of combining ‗the best insights from communicative language teaching with an organized focus on language form‘ and thus avoiding the drawbacks of more narrowly form-centred or communication-centred approaches. Tasks hold a central place both in current second language acquisition research and in language pedagogy Ellis, 2003. According to Littlewood 2004: 320, definitions of task range along a continuum according to the extent to which they insist on communicative purpose as an essential criterion. A language laboratory is a teaching tool requiring the implementation of well-constructed tasks on the students‘ needs. By this way, listening programs in languange laboratory are not placed anymore on listening comprehension without any interaction and teacher educators choose listening materials without doing learners‘ learning needs analysis. But rather, language laboratory can indeed serve to support communicative approaches to language instruction. 36 LeeAn 1991: 3-4 states that there are three main criteria for tasks language laboratory activities. First, they have a goal or purpose that requires the use of the target language, but is not itself centered on that language. The second criterion involves making use of the unique features of a language lab to create a learning environment that cannot be recreated in the regular classroom. The third characteristic of a task activity is that it involves the students in a way that intrinsically motivates, lowers the affective filter, and creates a desire to excel. Meanwhile, the role of task-based activities in language laboratory is to provide learners with opportunities to use the target language contextually and to explore the target language through situational activities. In this way, the language lab can serve as an invaluable tool in the language learning and teaching process, for it provides opportunities for learning that cannot be duplicated in the classroom. In practice, the effective listening exercises in language laboratory can be constructed using tasks. For instance, the teacher can give listening comprehension questions by taking notes, taking dictation, and expressing agreement or diasgreement. This is in line with Dunkel, 1986, p. 104; Ur, 1984, p. 25 that students should be required to do something in response to what they hear that will demonstrate their understanding. In this way, teachers can implement discrete approach in which listening instruction is taught partly from other skills such as reading, writing, and speaking. Different kinds of tasks are offered in discrete listening instruction. One is a transferring exercise that involves ―receiving information in one form and transferring the information or parts of it into another form‖ Richards, 1983: 235, such as drawing a picture or a diagram corresponding to the information given Dirven Oakeshott-Taylor, 1985. Another kind of listening task is a matching exercise that involves selecting a response from alternatives, such as pictures and objects, that correspond with what was heard Lund, 1990; Richards, 1983. Samples of this type of exercise are selecting a picture to match a situation and placing pictures in a sequence, which matches a story or set of events Richards, 1983. The other type of listening task involves physical movement Dunkel, 1986; Lund, 1990; Ur, 1984; that is, the students have to respond physically to oral directions. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS In the implementation of language laboratory, in particular, students are required to build their knowledge and skills for using various technological assistance to improve their linguistic competency. Nunan cited in Brenes, 2006: 8 indicates that the notion of information communication technology ICT is becoming ubiquitous these days, with numerous schools requiring students to demonstrate a degree of technological literacy. Specifically, language laboratory employs an integrated technological system which helps both teachers and students in teaching and learning foreign language. However, instead of the advantages of using integrated technology in language laboratory for teaching – learning a foreign language, teachers in Indonesia still find it is difficult to get the benefits of using the language laboratory. These teachers fail to create a lively atmosphere in the language lab. It often happens that students only get monotonous activities such as listening to the tapes or CDs, repeating the sounds they hear or just answering some listening comprehension questions which they cannot do since they do not understand what they have heard. Students might feel bored and reluctant to do their activities in the language lab so that they neither improve their performance nor their competence. In addition, the multi functions of technology embed on digital language laboratory is not maximally used by both teachers and students. To see the language laboratory as a tool in this light is the first step in the re-evaluation process. The next step is to glean ideas from CALL, as well as from other areas, that can be adapted to more appropriate uses in the language lab. Using tasks activities area means of integrating interactive learning through use of the language lab. These activities look at the language laboratory in the same way that CALL looks at the computer: as a tool that requires teacher direction in creating situations in which the students utilize the target language to attain some non-language- related objective. The distinction between task-based language lab activities and programmed instruction is essentially the same as that between CALL and CAI: one focuses on communicative fluency, the other on linguistic accuracy. In task-based language laboratory, students have a goal or purpose that requires the use of the target language, but is not itself centered on that language. For example, each student writes and tape records a story about an invented vacation. Students then listen to the stories and evaluate them in terms of which vacation they would most like to take themselves. The students‘ goal is to tell a story that interests and excites their peers. The focus is on the story rather than on the language itself; however, the means to the end is through effective communication in the target language. 37 Moreover, task-based language laboratory also provides learners with opportunities to use the target language contextually, and to explore the target language through situational activities. In this way, the language lab can serve as an invaluable tool in the language learning and teaching process, for it provides opportunities for learning that cannot be duplicated in the classroom. A tool, however, is only as effective as its implementor, and thus the role of the teacher is central to the success of task-based activities. The aim of patterned lab drills was to provide a mechanical means to free the teacher for other instructional activities. Task-based activities bring the teacher back into the lab using communicative approach which finally generate the students‘ comprehension. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments on this article. They have provided constructive feedback on the earlier version of this manuscript. REFERENCES 1. Arkoç, Esra Şirin. 2008. The impact of learner autonomy on the success of listening comprehension. Unpublished master thesis. Department of English Language Teaching in Accordance with the Regulations of the Institute of the Social Sciences Trakya Univesity. 2. Brenes, César A. Navas. 2006. The laboratory and the EFL course. Revista Electrónica “Actualidades Investigativas en Educación”, 62, pp. 1-25. 3. Brownell, K. 1997. Technology in teacher education: Where are we and where do we go from here. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 5 23, pp. 117-138. 4. Chapelle, A. C. 2001. Computer applications in second language acquisition: foundations for teaching, testing and research . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 5. Chapelle, A. C. 2003. English Language Learning and Technology. John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam. 6. Day, R., Bamford, J. 2002. Top ten principles for teaching extensive reading. Reading in a Foreign Langugae , 142. From http:nflrc.hawaii.edurfloctober2002dayday.html 7. Depdiknas. 2006. Standar Isi dan Standar Kompetensi Lulusan Tingkat SMP dan MTs [The Standard of Content and Competence Standard of Junior High School and Islamic Junior High School Graduates] . Binatama Raya, Jakarta. 8. Dias, J. V., Strong, G. B. 2011. Blended learning in a listening course: Seeking best practices. In A. Stewart Ed., JALT 2010 Conference Proceedings JALT: Tokyo. 9. Dirven, R., Oakeshott-Taylor, J. 1985. Listening comprehension. Language Teaching 18, 2-20. 10. Dunkel, P. 1986. Developing listening fluency in L2: theoretical principles and pedagogical considerations. The Modern Language Journal, 70, 99-106. 11. Ellis, R. 2003. Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 12. Gilmour, B. 2004. Summary report of college English pilot. University of Newcastle Upon Tyne, Newcastle. 13. Harmer, J. 2007. The Practice of English Language Teaching. 4th edition. Pearson Education, Essex, UK. 14. Hegelheimer, V. and Tower, D. 2004. Using CALL in the classroom: Analyzing student interactions in an authentic classroom. System, 322, pp. 185-205. 15. Kilickaya, F. 2004. Authentic materials and cultural context in EFL classrooms. The Internet TESL Journal, 10

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