Tensile Properties Of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (OPEFB) Fiber Reinforced Polypropylene (PP) Poly (Lactic-Acid) (PLA) Composites.

SUPERVISOR DECLARATION

“I hereby declare that I have read this thesis and in my opinion this report is sufficient in terms of scope and quality for the award of the degree of Bachelor of

Mechanical Engineering (Structure and Materials)”

Signature : ……….

Supervisor I : ……….

Date : ……….

Signature : ……….

Supervisor II : ……….

TENSILE PROPERTIES OF OIL PALM EMPTY FRUIT BUNCH (OPEFB) FIBER REINFORCED POLYPROPYLENE (PP)/ POLY(LACTIC-ACID) (PLA) COMPOSITES

ZAILINDA BINTI ABDULLAH

Project submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for Bachelor Degree of Mechanical Engineering (Structure & Materials)

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka

ii

DECLARATION

“I hereby declare that the work in this report is my own except for summaries and quotations which have been duly acknowledged.”

Signature : ………..

Author : ………..

iii

Specially dedicated to my beloved father Hj Abdullah Bin Yahya and beloved mother Hjh Zainab Hong Binti Abdullah, brothers and sisters, to all family members,

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author thanks to Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM) formerly known as Kolej Universiti Teknikal Kebangsaan Malaysia (KUTKM), Faculty of Mechanical Engineering for giving the opportunity to do this research for final year student. Huge thanks to Mr Mohd Nur Azmi Bin Nordin as the author’s supervisor for his guiding and advice to finish this research.

Last but not least, warmest gratitude to anyone who gives their continuing encouragement, support, and advice in finishing this research.

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ABSTRACT

This research is dedicated to the study of the tensile properties of oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) fiber reinforced polypropylene (PP) and poly (lactic-acid) (PLA) composites. From the previous study, the investigation on tensile characteristic was done by using biodegradable polymers poly (lactic-acid) (PLA) on oil palm fiber in chopped random form. In this research the particle size of OPEFB was used in range size, 0.25mm to 0.063mm reinforced the PP and PLA. There are two major types of specimens which are differ in the composition. First type of specimens contain 10wt% of OPEFB loading with different particle size 0.063mm and 0.25mm labeled as OPEFB0.063-PP/PLA and OPEFB0.25-PP/PLA respectively. For this type of specimens were prepared by using method B. Second type of specimens contain 0.25mm OPEFB particle size with different fibre loading, 20wt% and 30wt% labelled as OPEFB20%-PP/PLA and OPEFB30%-PP/PLA respectively. For this type of specimens was prepared by using method A. In order to investigate the tensile characteristic of the composites tensile test was carried out for each specimen respectively. From the result, for 10wt% of fibre loading obtain 22.36MPa of tensile strength for OPEFB0.25-PP/PLA that is 52% higher than OPEFB0.063-PP/PLA that is 10.73MPa of tensile strength. For 0.25mm OPEFB particle size obtain 19.54MPa of tensile strength for OPEFB20%-PP/PLA that is 14.1% higher than OPEFB30%-PP/PLA obtain 16.82MPa of tensile strength. This result influenced by the porosity occur in the composites that was proved by doing liquid immersion test. Hardness test also was carried out to investigate the hardness properties.

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ABSTRAK

Penyelidikan ini mengkaji tentang sifat-sifat ketegangan tehadap gentian kelapa sawit diperkuat dengan Polypropylene (PP) dan Poly (lactic-acid) (PLA) komposit. Daripada kajian ilmiah kajian terhadap ciri-ciri ketegangan terhadap gentian kelapa sawit dalam bentuk gentian pendek diperkuat dengan Poly (lactic-acid) (PLA) telah dilakukan. Dalam penyelidikan ini akan mengkaji tentang sifat ketegangan gentian kelapa sawit OPEFB dalam bentuk sebuk dalam ukurun antara 0.25mm kepada 0.063mm diperkuat oleh PP and PLA. Terdapat 2 jenis spesimen utama yang berbeza komposisi digunakan dalam kajian ini. Jenis spesimen pertama mengandungi 10wt% OPEFB dengan saiz OPEFB yang berbeza yang dinamakan OPEFB0.063-PP/PLA dan OPEFB0.25-PP/PLA masing-masing. Bagi jenis spesimen ini disediakan dengan menggunakan Kaedah B. Jenis spesimen kedua mengandungi 0.25mm OPEFB saiz fibre dengan perbezaan wt% fibre loading that are 20wt% and 30wt% yang dinamakan OPEFB20%-PP/PLA dan OPEFB30%-PP/PLA masing-masing. Untuk jenis spesimen ini disediakan dengan menggunakan kaedah A. Mesin ujian tegangan digunakan bagi mengkaji cirri-ciri tarikan komposit. Spesimen yang dihasilkan akan diuji dengan mesin ujian tegangan untuk mengkaji cirri-ciri tarikan pada kompsit. Berdasarkan keputusan, komposisi 10wt% OPEFB iaitu OPEFB0.25-PP/PLA memperoleh 22.35MPa daya tarikan iaitu 52% lebih tinggi berbanding OPEFB0.063-PP/PLA iaitu 10.73MPa. Manakala untuk komposis 0.25mm OPEFB, OPEFB20%-PP/PLA memperoleh 19.54MPa daya tarikan iaitu 14.1% lebih tinggi berbanding OPEFB30%-PP/PLA iaitu 16.82MPa daya tarikan. Keputusan daya tarikan ini dipengaruhi oleh liang yang terdapat di dalam komposit yang telah dibuktikan melaui kajian kadar serap cecair. Ujian kekerasan juga turut dilakukan untuk mengkaji sifat kekerasan komposit.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER TITTLE PAGE

DECLARATION ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

TABLE OF CONTENT vii

LIST OF TABLES x

LIST OF FIGURES xii

LIST OF SYMBOL xv

LIST OF APPENDICES xvi

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background Research 1

1.2 Objectives 5

1.3 Problem Statement 5

1.4 Scope 5

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 Introduction 6

2.2 Composite 6

2.2.1 Polymer Matrix Composite 7

viii

2.3.1 Polypropylene 8

2.3.2 Poly(Lactic-Acid)(PLA) 9

2.4 Reinforcement 9

2.4.1 Natural Fibre 10

2.4.2 Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (OPEFB) 11 2.5 Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch Treatment 14

2.6 Natural Fibre Polymer Composite 15

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY 20

3.1 Introduction 20

3.2 Materials 21

3.3 Specimen Preparation 22

3.3.1 Preparation for Neat PP/PLA Specimen 22 3.3.2 Preparation for OPEFB Particle Size 25 3.3.3 Preparation for 10wt% OPEFB-PP/PLA Composite 26 3.3.4 Preparation for 0.25mm OPEFB-PP/PLA Composite 28

3.4 Experiment Test 29

3.4.1 Tensile Test 29

3.4.2 Hardness Test 30

3.4.3 Water absorption and Liquid Immersion Test 30

CHAPTER IV RESULT 32

4.1 Introduction 32

4.2 Tensile Test Results 32

4.2.1 Tensile Test Result for Neat PP/PLA Specimen 33 4.2.2 Tensile Test Result for 10wt% 37

OPEFB-PP/PLA Composite

4.2.3 Tensile Test for 0.25mm OPEFB-PP/PLA 39 Composite

4.3 Hardness Test Results 41

4.3.1 Hardness Test Results for Neat PP/PLA Specimen 42 4.3.2 Hardness Test Results for 10wt% 42

ix OPEFB-PP/PLA Specimen

4.3.3 Hardness Test Results for 0.25mm 43 OPEFB-PP/PLA Specimen

4.4 Water Absorption and Liquid Immersion Test Result 44 4.4.1 Water Absorption And Liquid Immersion Test 45 Result For 10wt% OPEFB-PP/PLA Composite

4.4.2 Water Absorption And Liquid Immersion Test 45 Result For 0.25mm OPEFB-PP/PLA Composite

4.5 Observation of Specimen Preparation 45

CHAPTER V DISCUSSION 48

5.1 Introduction 48

5.2 Tensile Strength 48

5.3 Hardness Test 52

5.4 Water Absorption and Liquid Immersion Test 55

5.5 Problem 57

CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 58

6.1 Introduction 58

6.2 Conclusion 58

6.3 Recommendations 59

REFERENCES 60

BIBLIOGRAFHY 65

x

LIST OF TABLES

BIL. TITTLE PAGE

1.1 Tensile Properties of Single Natural Fibre [2] 4 2.1 Properties of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch Fibre 11

(OPEFB)[14]

2.2 Standard percentage of fibre length [13] 13

2.3 Tensile Properties of the PLA based composite [24] 19

3.1 Composition for PP/PLA 22

3.2 Composition for 10wt% OPEFB-PP/PLA Composite 27 3.3 Composition for 0.25mm OPEFB-PP/PLA Composite 28 4.1 Tensile Strength, Strain and Modulus of Neat PP/PLA0% 33

Specimen

4.2 Tensile Strength, Strain and Modulus of Neat PP/PLA 3% 34 Specimen

4.3 Tensile Strength, Strain and Modulus of Neat PP/PLA 5% 34 Specimen

4.4 Tensile Strength, Strain and Modulus of Neat PP/PLA 10% 35 Specimen

4.5 Tensile Strength and Modulus of Neat PP/PLA 36 4.6 Tensile Strength, Strain and Modulus of Neat PP/PLA 37 4.7 Tensile Strength, Strain and Modulus of Specimen 38

OPEFB0.063-PP/PLA

4.8 Tensile Strength, Strain and Modulus of Specimen 39 OPEFB0.025-PP/PLA

4.9 Tensile Strength, Strain and Modulus of Specimen 40 OPEFB20%-PP/PLA

xi 4.10 Tensile Strength, Strain and Modulus of Specimen 41

OPEFB30%-PP/PLA

4.11 Hardness Scale for Neat PP/PLA 42

4.12 Hardness Scale for OPEFB0.063-PP/PLA 42

4.13 Hardness Scale for OPEFB0.25-PP/PLA 43

4.14 Hardness Scale for OPEFB20%-PP/PLA 43

4.15 Hardness Scale for OPEFB30%-PP/PLA 44

4.16 Water Absorption 10wt% OPEFB-PP/PLA Composite 45 4.17 Liquid Immersion (kerosene) 10wt% OPEFB-PP/PLA 45

Composite

4.18 Water Absorption 0.25mm OPEFB-PP/PLA Composite 45 4.19 Liquid Immersion (kerosene) 0.25mm OPEFB-PP/PLA 45

Composite

5.1 Tensile Strength for 10wt% OPEFB-PP/PLA Neat PP/PLA 49 5.2 Tensile Strength for 0.25mm OPEFB-PP/PLA Neat PP/PLA 50 5.3 Tensile Strength, Strain and Modulus for 10wt% 51

OPEFB-PP/PLA and Neat PP/PLA

5.4 Tensile Strength, Strain and Modulus for 0.25mm 52 OPEFB-PP/PLA and Neat PP/PLA 5.5

5.5 Hardness Scale and Tensile Strength for 10wt% 53 OPEFB-PP/PLA and Neat PP/PLA

5.6 Hardness Scale and Tensile Strength for 0.25mm 55 OPEFB-PP/PLA and Neat PP/PLA

5.7 Strength(MPa) and Liquid Immersion (%) for 10wt% 56

` OPEFB-PP/PLA

5.8 Tensile Strength(MPa) and Liquid Immersion (%) for 57 0.25mm OPEFB-PP/PLA

xii

LIST OF FIGURES

BIL. TITTLE PAGE

1.1 Classification of natural fiber [1] 2

1.2 Empty Fruit Bunch 3

2.1 Composite Composition 6

2.2 Oil Palm Tree [11] 11

2.3 Palm Kernel 12

2.4 Fruit Bunch [11] 12

2.5 Oil Palm Fibre 13

2.6 Specimen For Tensile Test [14] 15

2.7 Tensile Strength versus Volume Fraction of Chopped 16 Random Fibre Composite [14]

2.8 Relation Between Fibre Content and Compressive 16 Strength Percentage [16].

2.9 Hand-Lay-Up Process 17

2.10 Tensile Properties of Neat PLA and PLA based 18 Composite [13].

3.1 Process Chart 21

3.2 Haake Internal Mixer 23

3.3 Crusher Machine 23

3.4 Mould 24

3.5 Hot Press Machine 24

3.6 Sample Cutting Machine 25

3.7 Dog bone shape Specimen 25

3.8 Rotor Mill Machine 26

xiii

3.10 Crushed Mixture of OPEFB-PP/PLA 27

3.11 Tensile Test Machine (Model: Instron 5585) 30 3.12 Specimen for Liquid Immersion Test(2.5cmx2.5cm) 31

3.13 Specimen Immersed in Liquid 31

4.1 Stress-Strain Diagram for Neat PP/PLA 0% Specimen 33 4.2 Stress-Strain Diagram for Neat PP/PLA 3% Specimen 33 4.3 Stress-Strain Diagram for Neat PP/PLA 5% Specimen 34 4.4 Stress-Strain Diagram for Neat PP/PLA 10% Specimen 35

4.5 Stress and Modulus-PP/PLA Diagram 36

4.6 Stress-Strain Diagram for Neat PP/PLA Specimen 37 4.7 Stress-Strain Diagram for OPEFB0.063-PP/PLA Specimen 38 4.8 Stress-Strain Diagram for OPEFB0.25-PP/PLA Specimen 39 4.9 Stress-Strain Diagram for OPEFB20%-PP/PLA Specimen 40 4.10 Stress-Strain Diagram for OPEFB30%-PP/PLA Specimen 41 4.11 Specimen composite for OPEFB20%-PP/PLA (Method A) 46 4.12 Specimen composite for PP/PLA-OPEFB 10% (Method A) 46 4.13 Specimen composite for PP/PLA-OPEFB 10% (Method B) 47 5.1 Tensile Strength Diagram for 10wt% OPEFB-PP/PLA 49

Neat PP/PLA

5.2 Tensile Strength Diagram for OPEFB(0.25mm) and Neat 50 PP/PLA3%

5.3 Stress-Strain Diagram for 10wt% OPEFB-PP/PLA 51 Specimen

5.4 Stress-Strain Diagram for 0.25mm OPEFB-PP/PLA 52 Specimen

5.5 Hardness Scale - Specimen Diagram for 10wt% 53 OPEFB-PP/PLA and Neat PP/PLA

5.6 Hardness Scale and Tensile Strength Diagram for 10wt% 53 OPEFB-PP/PLA and Neat PP/PLA

5.7 Hardness Scale - Specimen Diagram for 0.25mm 54 OPEFB-PP/PLA and Neat PP/PLA

5.8 Hardness Scale and Tensile Strength Diagram for 10wt% 54 OPEFB-PP/PLA and Neat PP/PLA

xiv OPEFB-PP/PLA

5.10 Tensile Strength and Liquid Immersion Diagram for 57 0.25mm OPEFB-PP/PLA

xv

LIST OF SYMBOL

Tg = Glass Transition Temperature

Tm = Melting Temperature

m0 = Initial Mass

xvi

LIST OF APPENDICES

BIL TITTLE PAGE

A Specimen Before and After Tensile Test 67

B Gantt Chart PSM I 68

C Gantt Chart PSM II 69

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Research

‘Projek Sarjana Muda’ (PSM) is compulsory for all student of UTeM in order to obtain a degree in the engineering field. From the PSM, every student will apply their subject learned from the classes into the final project. There are many applications that have to do such as theoretical, experimental, analysis, design and so on. Objective of this project is to produce professional and efficient graduate to complete engineering problem by literature and scientific study through research approach and development and through application of knowledge were studied and knowledge from some other field those concerning.

Nowadays, there is a growing public concern for reducing damage to our environment. This project will focus on composite that are created from natural fiber reinforced polymer matrix. Composites are hybrid materials made of polymer resin reinforced by fibres, combining the high mechanical and physical performance of the fibres and appearance, bonding and physical properties of polymers. The composites may become inconsistent fibre quality and can lead impact failure. Natural composites have various benefits such as due to its friendly characteristics that is no skin irritation and lightweight property of the products.

Natural fiber provide several benefits such as low cost, green availability, low densities, recyclable, biodegradable, moderate properties and usually produce in abundant amount at one time.

2 Asbestos Ceramic Fibre Metal Fibre Seed Fibre Leaf Fibre Skin Fibre Fruit Fibre Stalk Fibre Fiber are classification into two group that are natural fiber and synthetic fiber. For natural fiber it is come from animal, vegetable, and mineral while for polymer, metal, and glass.

Animal Fibres Minerals Fibres Plant Fibres Animal Hair

Silk Fibre Avian Fibre

Figure 1.1: Classification of Natural Fibre [1].

Natural fibers include those made from animal, mineral sources and plant. Animal fiber generally comprise of animal hair, silk fiber, and avian fibre. For synthetic fibres comprise of asbestos, ceramic fibers, and metal fibers. While the example of the plant fibers are seed fiber, leaf and skin fibre [1].

This research is carried out to cover about the oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) fibre. OPEFB fibre also known in scientific as Elaeis guineensis [7]. This products including empty fruit bunches, fibre and shell but for this research directed towards the oil palm empty fruit bunch [8]. The OPEFB fibre are clean, biodegradable, and compatible than many other fibre from wood species. OPEFB fiber is extracted from palm oil empty fruit bunch (EFB) and during the manufacturing process of oil palm fibre, EFB is shredded, separated, refined, and dried. The fresh oil palm fruit bunch contains about 21% palm oil, 6-7% palm kernel, 14-15% fiber, 6-7% shell, and 23% empty fruit bunch [2]. On about 27million acres oil palm is produced in 42countries worldwide, Malaysia is the world largest producer and exporter of oil palm. Therefore, as the world largest producer increases the oil palm plantation in Malaysia and at the same time Malaysia also produced waste products in large quantity. By exploiting this kind of waste materials not only

3 maximizes the use of oil palm but also helps preserve natural resources and maintain ecological balance [8].

Figure 1.2: Empty Fruit Bunch

There is an annual production of over 2 million tons of waste oil palm fibre [2]. In the past few years, empty fruit bunches are mainly incinerated to produce bunch ash to be used back to the field as fertilizer. By doing the conventional method that is burning these residues, it is normally creates an environmental problem and generates severe air pollution. So that, the OPEFB become more expensive to dispose. The OPEFB has been chosen to be the raw materials of producing composite in this research is due to its abundant and low cost than other source, clean, nontoxic abrasive renewable. From the previous research, the oil palm shell was used as structural concrete and found that the oil palm shell has good potential as a course aggregate for the production of structural lightweight concrete [8]. In other previous research, the OPEFB is used in Stone Mastic Asphalt. This investigation is to improve the service properties of the Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) mixes by forming plant to prevent drain-down of asphalt as to increase the stability and durability of the pavement mix [9].

For the matrix of the composites used in this project are Polypropylene and Poly(lactic-acid). Polypropylene is a semi-crystalline polymer that is used extensively due to its unique properties, cost and easy to fabricate. While Poly(lactic-acid)(PLA) is a biodegradable polymer derived from lactic-acid and made from 100% renewable resources such as sugar, wheat and starch. Therefore, from this research, can compare the properties between these both materials and do the research on the application suitable for the composite materials.

4 For this research, the tensile properties of this oil palm fiber reinforced with matrix Polypropylene and Poly(lactic-acid) (PLA) will be investigated and the tensile properties of the matrix Polypropylene and Poly(lactic-acid) (PLA) itself also will be investigated. The physical characteristics of high molecular weight PLA are to a great extent dependent on its transition temperatures for common qualities such as density, heat capacity, and mechanical and rheological properties. In the solid state, PLA can be either amorphous or semicrystalline, depending on the stereochemistry and thermal history. For amorphous PLAs, the glass transition (Tg) determines the

upper use temperature for most commercial applications. For semicrystalline PLAs, both the Tg (~58°C) and melting point (Tm), 130°–230°C (depending on structure)

are important for determining the use temperatures across various applications. Both of these transitions, Tg and Tm, are strongly affected by overall optical composition,

primary structure, thermal history, and molecular weight.

Above Tg amorphous PLAs transition from glassy to rubbery and will behave

as a viscous fluid upon further heating. Below Tg, PLA behaves as a glass with the

ability to creep until cooled to its β transition temperature of approximately -45°C. Below this temperature PLA will only behave as a brittle polymer [5].

This research is due to the tensile strength of composite that is OPEFB fibre reinforced polypropylene and PLA. Below shows the tensile properties of single natural fiber for bamboo, banana and palm leaves.

Table 1.1 Tensile Properties of Single Natural Fibre [2]

From the table above, we can see that the tensile strength and the young’s modulus for single natural fiber such as banana fibre, bamboo fibre and palm leaves fibre. Therefore, for this project oil palm fiber empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) was selected to be reinforced for the composite.

Fibre Tensile Strength (MPa) Young’s Modulus (MPa)

Banana 550±7 2000

Bundle of Bamboo 441 35900

5

1.2 Objectives

The objective of this project is to investigate the tensile properties of oil palm fiber by loading OPEFB fibre into Polypropylene and Poly (lactic-acid). To identify the appropriate or optimum ratio of the OPEFB fiber in particle size to produce composite.

1.3 Problem Statement

To reduce the rate of the one of the main contributors to the nation’s pollution problem this is due to the abundance of OPEFB as waste [7]. Being the world’s largest producer and exporter of palm oil, Malaysia is well known for its palm oil industry and one significant problem in the large amounts of waste produced. By exploiting this waste oil palm can maximises the use of oil palm and helps preserve natural sources and also maintain ecological balance [8]. The synthetic fibres such as glass fibre, rock wool, or asbestos are concern with the possible health effects and it is required high standard practice to take safety precaution when installing or handling fibreglass or rock wool. Therefore, by using natural fibre we can reduce the possible health effect [10]. Natural fibre has excellent advantages that are it can be renewable, nonabrasive and cheaper. So that, this oil palm fibre can be an attractive reinforcement in making composite and can use in various application.

1.4 Scope

To achieve the objectives of this research, several scopes should be concern about that is investigating the composite’s tensile properties through the tensile test and do liquid immersion test to identify the characteristic of tensile strength. Another scope is to identify the appropriate ratio of constituent materials and the methodology process according to the characteristic of each component in producing the OPEFB fibre reinforced Polypropylene and Poly (lactic-acid) composites.

6

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Literature review is the most important step to retrieve information related with the topic. Literature review can be done by searching all the information from internet, journals, books, magazines, and other sources. In this chapter, the information such as about the materials used in composites and the preparation were study in this chapter.

2.2 Composite

Composite is a structure made of materials which maintain their identities even after the component fully formed. Two main components in composites are matrix and reinforcement.

Figure 2.1: Composite Composition

The composite is expected to improve the mechanical characteristics such as the stiffness, toughness as well as ambient and high temperature resistance [19]. Typical fibres used are glass, carbon, aramid and natural fibres. Epoxy, polyester and

7 polypropylene is a common resins used in the composite fabrication. By this joining, poor capabilities and drawbacks of the individual components will be disappeared. For instance, composites will have a high stiffness and strength with a low weight and their corrosion resistance is often excellent [19]. Composites are now a part of everyday life, and have entered nearly all major industrial sectors, including aerospace, ground transport, packaging, sports industry and civil engineering. Most current applications are modern; however, some are in fact quite ancient.

There are four types of matrix those are used in composites, namely polymer matrix composite (PMC) those are composed of a matrix from thermoset and thermoplastic and embedded glass, steel and fibres, metal matrix composite (MMC) that composites are composed of metallic matrix such as aluminium, magnesium, iron and copper, ceramic matrix composite (CMC) those are composed of a ceramic matrix and embedded fibres of other ceramic material and carbon carbon composite (CCC) [19 and 21]. For the good reinforcement, there are a few thing should be concern about such as high elastic modulus, high strength, low density, and easy wetted by matrix. The fibre can be designed in 3 designs unidirectional, biaxial and laminates or any combination of three of them. Besides, there are three main types of geometries of the reinforcement which are particle-reinforced, fibre-reinforced and structural composite [19]. Despite, fibre based reinforced composites will be emphasized in this study, whereby the OPEFB will be the filler in composites. Thus, (PMC) system which utilized the OPEFB as filler reinforcement material will be developed and further emphasizes in this study.

2.2.1 Polymer Matrix Composite

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC) is also known as Fibre Reinforcement Polymers (FRP). The most common matrix materials for composites are polymeric materials. The reason for this is two-fold. First, in general the mechanical properties of polymers are inadequate for much structural purpose. In particular their strength and stiffness are low compared to the metals and ceramics. This meant that the reinforcement at least, initially did not have to have exceptional properties. Secondly, the processing of polymer matrix composite (PMCs) need not involve high pressures

Asbestos Ceramic Fibre

Metal Fibre

Seed Fibre Leaf Fibre Skin Fibre Fruit Fibre Stalk Fibre Fiber are classification into two group that are natural fiber and synthetic fiber. For natural fiber it is come from animal, vegetable, and mineral while for polymer, metal, and glass.

Animal Fibres Minerals Fibres Plant Fibres Animal Hair

Silk Fibre Avian Fibre

Figure 1.1: Classification of Natural Fibre [1].

Natural fibers include those made from animal, mineral sources and plant. Animal fiber generally comprise of animal hair, silk fiber, and avian fibre. For synthetic fibres comprise of asbestos, ceramic fibers, and metal fibers. While the example of the plant fibers are seed fiber, leaf and skin fibre [1].

This research is carried out to cover about the oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) fibre. OPEFB fibre also known in scientific as Elaeis guineensis [7]. This products including empty fruit bunches, fibre and shell but for this research directed towards the oil palm empty fruit bunch [8]. The OPEFB fibre are clean, biodegradable, and compatible than many other fibre from wood species. OPEFB fiber is extracted from palm oil empty fruit bunch (EFB) and during the manufacturing process of oil palm fibre, EFB is shredded, separated, refined, and dried. The fresh oil palm fruit bunch contains about 21% palm oil, 6-7% palm kernel, 14-15% fiber, 6-7% shell, and 23% empty fruit bunch [2]. On about 27million acres oil palm is produced in 42countries worldwide, Malaysia is the world largest producer and exporter of oil palm. Therefore, as the world largest producer increases the oil palm plantation in Malaysia and at the same time Malaysia also produced waste products in large quantity. By exploiting this kind of waste materials not only

maximizes the use of oil palm but also helps preserve natural resources and maintain ecological balance [8].

Figure 1.2: Empty Fruit Bunch

There is an annual production of over 2 million tons of waste oil palm fibre [2]. In the past few years, empty fruit bunches are mainly incinerated to produce bunch ash to be used back to the field as fertilizer. By doing the conventional method that is burning these residues, it is normally creates an environmental problem and generates severe air pollution. So that, the OPEFB become more expensive to dispose. The OPEFB has been chosen to be the raw materials of producing composite in this research is due to its abundant and low cost than other source, clean, nontoxic abrasive renewable. From the previous research, the oil palm shell was used as structural concrete and found that the oil palm shell has good potential as a course aggregate for the production of structural lightweight concrete [8]. In other previous research, the OPEFB is used in Stone Mastic Asphalt. This investigation is to improve the service properties of the Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) mixes by forming plant to prevent drain-down of asphalt as to increase the stability and durability of the pavement mix [9].

For the matrix of the composites used in this project are Polypropylene and Poly(lactic-acid). Polypropylene is a semi-crystalline polymer that is used extensively due to its unique properties, cost and easy to fabricate. While Poly(lactic-acid)(PLA) is a biodegradable polymer derived from lactic-acid and made from 100% renewable resources such as sugar, wheat and starch. Therefore, from this research, can compare the properties between these both materials and do the research on the application suitable for the composite materials.

For this research, the tensile properties of this oil palm fiber reinforced with matrix Polypropylene and Poly(lactic-acid) (PLA) will be investigated and the tensile properties of the matrix Polypropylene and Poly(lactic-acid) (PLA) itself also will be investigated. The physical characteristics of high molecular weight PLA are to a great extent dependent on its transition temperatures for common qualities such as density, heat capacity, and mechanical and rheological properties. In the solid state, PLA can be either amorphous or semicrystalline, depending on the stereochemistry and thermal history. For amorphous PLAs, the glass transition (Tg) determines the upper use temperature for most commercial applications. For semicrystalline PLAs, both the Tg (~58°C) and melting point (Tm), 130°–230°C (depending on structure) are important for determining the use temperatures across various applications. Both of these transitions, Tg and Tm, are strongly affected by overall optical composition, primary structure, thermal history, and molecular weight.

Above Tg amorphous PLAs transition from glassy to rubbery and will behave as a viscous fluid upon further heating. Below Tg, PLA behaves as a glass with the ability to creep until cooled to its β transition temperature of approximately -45°C. Below this temperature PLA will only behave as a brittle polymer [5].

This research is due to the tensile strength of composite that is OPEFB fibre reinforced polypropylene and PLA. Below shows the tensile properties of single natural fiber for bamboo, banana and palm leaves.

Table 1.1 Tensile Properties of Single Natural Fibre [2]

From the table above, we can see that the tensile strength and the young’s modulus for single natural fiber such as banana fibre, bamboo fibre and palm leaves fibre. Therefore, for this project oil palm fiber empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) was selected to be reinforced for the composite.

Fibre Tensile Strength (MPa) Young’s Modulus (MPa)

Banana 550±7 2000

Bundle of Bamboo 441 35900

1.2 Objectives

The objective of this project is to investigate the tensile properties of oil palm fiber by loading OPEFB fibre into Polypropylene and Poly (lactic-acid). To identify the appropriate or optimum ratio of the OPEFB fiber in particle size to produce composite.

1.3 Problem Statement

To reduce the rate of the one of the main contributors to the nation’s pollution problem this is due to the abundance of OPEFB as waste [7]. Being the world’s largest producer and exporter of palm oil, Malaysia is well known for its palm oil industry and one significant problem in the large amounts of waste produced. By exploiting this waste oil palm can maximises the use of oil palm and helps preserve natural sources and also maintain ecological balance [8]. The synthetic fibres such as glass fibre, rock wool, or asbestos are concern with the possible health effects and it is required high standard practice to take safety precaution when installing or handling fibreglass or rock wool. Therefore, by using natural fibre we can reduce the possible health effect [10]. Natural fibre has excellent advantages that are it can be renewable, nonabrasive and cheaper. So that, this oil palm fibre can be an attractive reinforcement in making composite and can use in various application.

1.4 Scope

To achieve the objectives of this research, several scopes should be concern about that is investigating the composite’s tensile properties through the tensile test and do liquid immersion test to identify the characteristic of tensile strength. Another scope is to identify the appropriate ratio of constituent materials and the methodology process according to the characteristic of each component in producing the OPEFB fibre reinforced Polypropylene and Poly (lactic-acid) composites.

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Literature review is the most important step to retrieve information related with the topic. Literature review can be done by searching all the information from internet, journals, books, magazines, and other sources. In this chapter, the information such as about the materials used in composites and the preparation were study in this chapter.

2.2 Composite

Composite is a structure made of materials which maintain their identities even after the component fully formed. Two main components in composites are matrix and reinforcement.

Figure 2.1: Composite Composition

The composite is expected to improve the mechanical characteristics such as the stiffness, toughness as well as ambient and high temperature resistance [19]. Typical fibres used are glass, carbon, aramid and natural fibres. Epoxy, polyester and

polypropylene is a common resins used in the composite fabrication. By this joining, poor capabilities and drawbacks of the individual components will be disappeared. For instance, composites will have a high stiffness and strength with a low weight and their corrosion resistance is often excellent [19]. Composites are now a part of everyday life, and have entered nearly all major industrial sectors, including aerospace, ground transport, packaging, sports industry and civil engineering. Most current applications are modern; however, some are in fact quite ancient.

There are four types of matrix those are used in composites, namely polymer matrix composite (PMC) those are composed of a matrix from thermoset and thermoplastic and embedded glass, steel and fibres, metal matrix composite (MMC) that composites are composed of metallic matrix such as aluminium, magnesium, iron and copper, ceramic matrix composite (CMC) those are composed of a ceramic matrix and embedded fibres of other ceramic material and carbon carbon composite (CCC) [19 and 21]. For the good reinforcement, there are a few thing should be concern about such as high elastic modulus, high strength, low density, and easy wetted by matrix. The fibre can be designed in 3 designs unidirectional, biaxial and laminates or any combination of three of them. Besides, there are three main types of geometries of the reinforcement which are particle-reinforced, fibre-reinforced and structural composite [19]. Despite, fibre based reinforced composites will be emphasized in this study, whereby the OPEFB will be the filler in composites. Thus, (PMC) system which utilized the OPEFB as filler reinforcement material will be developed and further emphasizes in this study.

2.2.1 Polymer Matrix Composite

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC) is also known as Fibre Reinforcement Polymers (FRP). The most common matrix materials for composites are polymeric materials. The reason for this is two-fold. First, in general the mechanical properties of polymers are inadequate for much structural purpose. In particular their strength and stiffness are low compared to the metals and ceramics. This meant that the reinforcement at least, initially did not have to have exceptional properties. Secondly, the processing of polymer matrix composite (PMCs) need not involve high pressures