Attentional processes. To reach the learner, the model must command Retention processes. For learners to profit from the modeled behavior, they

The attractive girl in the passenger seat signals that this truck brings prestige and romantic success. A stimulus enhancer and emotion arouser. The couple is shown heading for a great sale where these trucks are selling for a very low price. Facilitating modeling; the sale will make it easier for the viewer to purchase a new truck. A final clip shows friends who are disappointed because they bought a more expensive model which does not perform as well. Inhibitor: the viewer learns to distrust more expensive models. Types of models The term model may refer to a person whose behavior the observer sees as positive and whom he tries to emulate. However, powerful, vicarious learning experiences are also provided by individuals who disregard rules, conventions, and ethics. The consequences they reap are observed by their peers, who often decide that the consequences are not worth the risk. Exemplary models. Those who model either positive or negative behavior are called exemplary models. Observing the shock and sorrow of those who have lost loved ones in drunk-driving accidents, for example, has contributed powerfully to the consensus in our society that if one drinks one should not drive. Symbolic models, in contrast to living models, may include books, verbal and written instructions, pictures, mental images, cartoon or film characters, religious figures, and television models. Barney, the friendly purple dinosaur on public service television, is a symbolic model who teaches social skills to small children by modeling friendliness, accommodation to others’ needs, and consideration for others’ feelings. Reading in the newspaper about the problems experienced by a rebellious teenager who has been expelled from school or caught in a drug bust can warn other young people to avoid similar conduct. Effective modeling Effective modeling takes place through a sequence which has been identified by Bandura. In society the process happens by itself. If teachers wish to plan modeled instruction, however, they will need to incorporate each step of the following sequence:

1. Attentional processes. To reach the learner, the model must command

attention—be attractive, successful, famous—or in some way be appealing and credible. The behaviors modeled should also be carefully planned so as to command attention. They should be distinctive, appealing, appropriately complex neither too hard nor too easy, common enough to be relevant, and of functional value. The learners must be physically capable of receiving and imitating the stimuli e.g., no films for blind people, have the interest to do so, and be convinced that it is possible to succeed if he or she attempts to imitate the action modeled Reiser and Gagné 1982:499–512. For example, basketball heroes are often asked to coach high school students or handicapped children. These models command attention because of their skill and success. When they coach at a level of difficulty appropriate for the group, the task is neither too hard nor too easy but is relevant and of practical use to children striving for recognition. The fact that their coach has succeeded encourages them to believe that with hard work they, too, may achieve their goals.

2. Retention processes. For learners to profit from the modeled behavior, they

must remember what they have seen. Symbolic coding—usually verbal explanation— helps learners retain the lesson. Vivid imagery can have the same effect, as does mental rehearsal and actual motor rehearsal practice of the action sequence. For example, the Sesame Street television program for children and the cooking classes, art classes, and exercise classes for adults shown on TV are carefully programmed for interest, vividness of color, and memorable action. They always include demonstration, and written captions may be used in addition to verbal explanations. Models are attractive, the topics age appropriate. The vivid pictures and demonstrations employed in these classes make learning easy to remember and exemplify Bandura’s principles.

3. Motor reproduction processes involve actual practice of the modeled behavior,